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Successes and Failures of Democratic Consolidation South Asia

Permanent Link: http://ncf.sobek.ufl.edu/NCFE004487/00001

Material Information

Title: Successes and Failures of Democratic Consolidation South Asia A Comparative Study of India and Pakistan
Physical Description: Book
Language: English
Creator: Cochran, Dolan
Publisher: New College of Florida
Place of Publication: Sarasota, Fla.
Creation Date: 2011
Publication Date: 2011

Subjects

Subjects / Keywords: South Asia
Democracy
Institutions
Genre: bibliography   ( marcgt )
theses   ( marcgt )
government publication (state, provincial, terriorial, dependent)   ( marcgt )
born-digital   ( sobekcm )
Electronic Thesis or Dissertation

Notes

Abstract: This study investigates processes of democratic transition in India and Pakistan in an attempt to explain why India achieved democratic consolidation while democracy in Pakistan became unstable and prone to authoritarian interventions. The political and social systems of South Asia are analyzed utilizing a historical institutionalist approach that incorporates process-tracing methods and event history analysis. Particular attention is paid to the period of British Colonial rule and its impact on social, political, and economic systems, as well as notions of identity in the subcontinent. A focus on political development over time reveals significant disparities between Hindus and Muslims during British rule, which would have great impacts on the Indian and Pakistani transition processes. Using Linz and Stepan�s �five arenas of democracy� as an organizational schema, a diverse array of democratizaion theories are applied to empirical evidence from each state at the time of independence. Analysis reveals that the favorable political, social, and economic conditions, and institutions of governance in India in 1947 made democratic consolidation more likely in India than in Pakistan. Chapters two and three analyze the development of democratic institutions in India and Pakistan from 1947 to the present. India, benefiting from favorable conditions as well as elites who underwent a process of political learning during the colonial era, was able to craft stable and effective representative institutions. The legal system, governance structure, and electoral system established in India allowed for the institutionalization of democratic norms and procedures in Indian social and political life. Constructions of Indian national identity, as well as a range of formal and informal power-sharing arrangements, were also successful in uniting India�s diverse population without suppressing sub-national forms of identity. In Pakistan, inexperienced political elites engaged in a range of undemocratic tactics and behavior that became deeply entrenched in the political system. Group conflict and ethnic factionalism quickly emerged due to Pakistan�s unrepresentative governance structure, and they were exacerbated by attempts to impose a unified national identity on the country�s populations. The rapid development and heightened political and cultural importance of the Pakistani military and the inefficiency of democratic systems in the state allowed the armed forces to repeatedly assert their control over the political process. In comparing the development of democratic institutions in India and Pakistan, it is clear that unequal legacies of colonial rule as well as the decisions of individual elites affected the design of the governance structures, rate at which democratic procedures became established, institutional effectiveness, and ability to manage social diversity in each state. These differences led to rapid democratic consolidation in India, and a repeatedly stalled or reversed transition process in Pakistan.
Statement of Responsibility: by Dolan Cochran
Thesis: Thesis (B.A.) -- New College of Florida, 2011
Supplements: Accompanying materials: CD w/images
Electronic Access: RESTRICTED TO NCF STUDENTS, STAFF, FACULTY, AND ON-CAMPUS USE
Bibliography: Includes bibliographical references.
Source of Description: This bibliographic record is available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication. The New College of Florida, as creator of this bibliographic record, has waived all rights to it worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law.
Local: Faculty Sponsor: Hicks, Barbara

Record Information

Source Institution: New College of Florida
Holding Location: New College of Florida
Rights Management: Applicable rights reserved.
Classification: local - S.T. 2011 C66
System ID: NCFE004487:00001

Permanent Link: http://ncf.sobek.ufl.edu/NCFE004487/00001

Material Information

Title: Successes and Failures of Democratic Consolidation South Asia A Comparative Study of India and Pakistan
Physical Description: Book
Language: English
Creator: Cochran, Dolan
Publisher: New College of Florida
Place of Publication: Sarasota, Fla.
Creation Date: 2011
Publication Date: 2011

Subjects

Subjects / Keywords: South Asia
Democracy
Institutions
Genre: bibliography   ( marcgt )
theses   ( marcgt )
government publication (state, provincial, terriorial, dependent)   ( marcgt )
born-digital   ( sobekcm )
Electronic Thesis or Dissertation

Notes

Abstract: This study investigates processes of democratic transition in India and Pakistan in an attempt to explain why India achieved democratic consolidation while democracy in Pakistan became unstable and prone to authoritarian interventions. The political and social systems of South Asia are analyzed utilizing a historical institutionalist approach that incorporates process-tracing methods and event history analysis. Particular attention is paid to the period of British Colonial rule and its impact on social, political, and economic systems, as well as notions of identity in the subcontinent. A focus on political development over time reveals significant disparities between Hindus and Muslims during British rule, which would have great impacts on the Indian and Pakistani transition processes. Using Linz and Stepan�s �five arenas of democracy� as an organizational schema, a diverse array of democratizaion theories are applied to empirical evidence from each state at the time of independence. Analysis reveals that the favorable political, social, and economic conditions, and institutions of governance in India in 1947 made democratic consolidation more likely in India than in Pakistan. Chapters two and three analyze the development of democratic institutions in India and Pakistan from 1947 to the present. India, benefiting from favorable conditions as well as elites who underwent a process of political learning during the colonial era, was able to craft stable and effective representative institutions. The legal system, governance structure, and electoral system established in India allowed for the institutionalization of democratic norms and procedures in Indian social and political life. Constructions of Indian national identity, as well as a range of formal and informal power-sharing arrangements, were also successful in uniting India�s diverse population without suppressing sub-national forms of identity. In Pakistan, inexperienced political elites engaged in a range of undemocratic tactics and behavior that became deeply entrenched in the political system. Group conflict and ethnic factionalism quickly emerged due to Pakistan�s unrepresentative governance structure, and they were exacerbated by attempts to impose a unified national identity on the country�s populations. The rapid development and heightened political and cultural importance of the Pakistani military and the inefficiency of democratic systems in the state allowed the armed forces to repeatedly assert their control over the political process. In comparing the development of democratic institutions in India and Pakistan, it is clear that unequal legacies of colonial rule as well as the decisions of individual elites affected the design of the governance structures, rate at which democratic procedures became established, institutional effectiveness, and ability to manage social diversity in each state. These differences led to rapid democratic consolidation in India, and a repeatedly stalled or reversed transition process in Pakistan.
Statement of Responsibility: by Dolan Cochran
Thesis: Thesis (B.A.) -- New College of Florida, 2011
Supplements: Accompanying materials: CD w/images
Electronic Access: RESTRICTED TO NCF STUDENTS, STAFF, FACULTY, AND ON-CAMPUS USE
Bibliography: Includes bibliographical references.
Source of Description: This bibliographic record is available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication. The New College of Florida, as creator of this bibliographic record, has waived all rights to it worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law.
Local: Faculty Sponsor: Hicks, Barbara

Record Information

Source Institution: New College of Florida
Holding Location: New College of Florida
Rights Management: Applicable rights reserved.
Classification: local - S.T. 2011 C66
System ID: NCFE004487:00001


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S u c c e s s e s an d F ai l u r e s of D e m oc r a t i c C o n s ol i d a t i o n i n S ou t h A s i a: A C om p ar at i ve S t u d y of I n d i a an d P ak i s t an B y D ol a n C oc hr a n S ubm i t t e d t o N e w C ol l e ge of F l o r i da D e pa r t m e nt of P ol i t i c a l S c i e nc e 1n pa r t i a l f ul f i l l m e nt of t he r e qui r e m e nt s f or t he d e gr e e of B a c he l or of A r t s U nde r t he s pons or s hi p of D r B a r ba r a H i c ks S a r a s ot a F l or i da A pr i l 2011

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i i D e d i c at e d t o m y b r ot h e r s L u k e an d S a m

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i i i A c k n ow l e d gm e n t s T he r e ha ve be e n m a ny pe opl e a nd pl a c e s t ha t ha ve m a de t hi s t he s i s pos s i bl e F i r s t I w oul d l i ke t o t ha nk m y pa r e nt s f o r a l l t he he l p a nd s uppor t t he y ha ve gi ve n m e ove r t he ye a r s I w oul d a l s o l i ke t o t ha nk D r B a r ba r a H i c ks f or t he gui da nc e t ha t a l l ow e d m e t o c om pl e t e m y t he s i s a nd s uc c e e d i n a l l m y a c a de m i c pur s ui t s T he t he s i s w r i t i ng pr oc e s s w a s a l ong a nd a r duous j ou r ne y t ha t r e qui r e d m a ny da ys a nd ni ght s of l os t s l e e p. T he r e f or e I w oul d a l s o l i ke t o t ha nk T a c o B e l l C hi pol t e a nd t he S he l l f o r ke e pi ng m e a l i ve t hi s s e m e s t e r T o a l l m y f r i e nds a t N e w C ol l e ge a nd ba c k hom e t ha nk you f or be i ng t he r e f o r m e t hr ough i t a l l T ha nk you C l a yt on, V i c t or D e r e k D a n, M i ke T om C hr i s J or da n, J e n, E va n B uc c i A nd r e a S a r a H a r r i s on a nd C a r l os I l ove you guys I e s pe c i a l l y ha ve t o t ha nk R i kki M i l l e r f or ke e pi ng m e one s t e p a he a d of m y m a dne s s f or t he pa s t f our ye a r s F i na l l y, a s pe c i a l t ha nks t o E u ge ni e F or t i e r I l ove you Y ou a r e a nd w i l l a l w a ys be m y f a vor i t e

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i v T ab l e of C on t e n t s L i s t of A c r on ym s vi A b s t r ac t vi i I n t r od u c t i on C h ap t e r 1: T h e D e ve l op m e n t of D e m oc r at i c I n s t i t u t i o n s i n S ou t h A s i a. 6 S om e N ot e s on t he U s e o f H i s t or y a nd C ul t ur e i n P ol i t i c a l S c i e nc e R e s e a r c h. 7 P r e C ol oni a l I de nt i t i e s a nd S oc i a l S t r uc t ur e s B r i t i s h R ul e a nd I t s I m pa c t on t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni T r a ns i t i ons 17 T he G r ow t h of N a t i ona l i s t M ove m e nt s 21 F r om C i vi l t o P o l i t i c a l S oc i e t y 25 E l i t e B a r ga i ni ng a nd P a r t i t i on. 30 C onc l us i ons C h ap t e r 2: P r os p e c t s f or D e m oc r at i c C on s ol i d a t i on a t I n d e p e n d e n c e 38 D e f i ni t i on of T e r m s I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n a t I nde pe nde nc e 42 P ol i t i c a l S oc i e t y 43 C i vi l S oc i e t y 51 R ul e of L a w E c onom i c S oc i e t y 66 S t a t e A ppa r a t us 73 C onc l us i ons C h ap t e r 3: D e m oc r at i z at i on i n I n d i a F oundi ng t he N a t i on 82 D e f i ni ng I ndi a n N a t i ona l I de nt i t y 84 I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on a nd G ove r na nc e S t r uc t ur e 87 T he E vol ut i on of I ndi a n D e m oc r a c y. 90 1952 1 967: A C ongr e s s C ont r ol l e d C ons ol i da t i on 90 1967 1982: D e m oc r a t i c O pe ni ngs a nd A ut hor i t a r i a n I nt e r l ude s 94 1982 T he P r e s e nt : P a r t y S ys t e m S t a bi l i z a t i on a nd I de nt i t y P ol i t i c s 99 A na l ys i s : S uc c e s s e s a n F a i l ur e s of I ndi a n D e m oc r a c y C h ap t e r 4: D e m oc r at i z at i on i n P ak i s t an 114 F oundi ng t he N a t i on D e f i ni ng P a ki s t a ni N a t i ona l I de nt i t y 116 P a ki s t a ni C ons t i t ut i on a nd G ove r na nc e S t r uc t u r e 119 T he E vol ut i on of P a ki s t a ni D e m oc r a c y 123 1947 1958: C or r upt i on, C onf l i c t a nd C ha os 124 1958 1969: L i m i t e d D e m oc r a c y a nd M i l i t a r y R ul e

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v 1969 1977: A ut hor i t a r i a n B e ha vi or i n a D e m oc r a t i c S ys t e m 131 1977 1988: M a r t i a l L a w a nd I t s D e m oc r a t i c O ppo ne nt s 1988 1999: A ut hor i t a r i a n L e ga c i e s a nd U ns t a bl e D e m oc r a c y 1999 2008: A M i l i t a r y C ont r ol l e d D e m oc r a c y 2008 T he P r e s e nt : P r om i s i ng O ut l ooks a nd L i nge r i ng T hr e a t s 144 A na l ys i s : T he F a i l ur e s of P a k i s t a ni D e m oc r a c y 145 C h ap t e r 5: C on c l u s i on 153 B i b l i ogr ap h y 164

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vi L i s t of A c r on ym s B JP : B h ar at i ya Jan at a P ar t y C S P : C i v i l S e r vi c e o f P ak i s t an E B O D O : E l e c t i ve B od i e s D i s q u al i f i c at i on O r d e r I A S : I n d i an A d m i n i s t r at i ve S e r vi c e I JI : I s l am i Jah oor i I t t e h ad I N C : I n d i an N a t i on al C on gr e s s I N C ( O ) : I n d i an N a t i on al C o n gr e s s O r gan i z at i on I N C ( R ) : I n d i a n N at i o n al C on gr e s s R e q u i s i t i o n I C S : I n d i an C i vi l S e r vi c e P M L : P ak i s t an M u s l i m L e agu e P M L ( N ) : P a k i s t an i M u s l i m L e agu e N aw az P M L ( Q ) : P ak i s t an M u s l i m L e agu e Q u ai d e A am P N A : P ak i s t an N a t i on al A l l i an c e P P P : P ak i s t an P e op l e s P ar t y R S S : R as h r t r i ya S w ayam s e vak S an gh

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vi i S u c c e s s e s an d F ai l u r e s of D e m oc r a t i c C o n s ol i d a t i o n i n S ou t h A s i a: A C om p ar a t i ve S t u d y o f I n d i a an d P ak i s t an D ol an C oc h r an N e w C ol l e ge of F l or i d a, 2011 A B S T R A C T T hi s s t udy i nve s t i ga t e s pr oc e s s e s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n i n a n a t t e m pt t o e xpl a i n w hy I ndi a a c hi e ve d de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on w hi l e de m oc r a c y i n P a ki s t a n be c a m e uns t a bl e a nd pr one t o a ut ho r i t a r i a n i nt e r ve nt i ons T he pol i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s of S out h A s i a a r e a na l yz e d ut i l i z i ng a hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t a ppr oa c h t ha t i nc or por a t e s pr oc e s s t r a c i ng m e t hods a nd e ve nt hi s t or y a na l ys i s P a r t i c ul a r a t t e nt i on i s pa i d t o t he pe r i od o f B r i t i s h C ol oni a l r ul e a nd i t s i m pa c t on s oc i a l pol i t i c a l a nd e c onom i c s ys t e m s a s w e l l a s not i ons of i de nt i t y i n t he s ubc ont i ne nt A f oc us on pol i t i c a l de ve l opm e nt ove r t i m e r e ve a l s s i gni f i c a nt di s pa r i t i e s be t w e e n H i ndus a nd M us l i m s dur i ng B r i t i s h r ul e w hi c h w oul d ha ve gr e a t i m pa c t s on t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s U s i ng L i nz a nd S t e pa n s f i ve a r e na s o f de m oc r a c y a s a n or ga ni z a t i ona l s c he m a a di ve r s e a r r a y o f de m o c r a t i z a i on t he or i e s a r e a ppl i e d t o e m pi r i c a l e vi de nc e f r om e a c h s t a t e a t t he t i m e of i nde pe nde nc e A na l ys i s r e ve a l s t ha t t he f a vor a bl e pol i t i c a l s oc i a l a nd e c onom i c c ondi t i ons a nd i ns t i t ut i ons o f gove r na nc e i n I ndi a i n 1947 m a de de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i o n m or e l i ke l y i n I ndi a t ha n i n P a ki s t a n. C ha pt e r s t w o a nd t hr e e a na l yz e t he de ve l opm e nt o f de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n f r om 1947 t o t he pr e s e nt I ndi a be ne f i t i ng f r o m f a vo r a bl e c ondi t i ons

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vi i i a s w e l l a s e l i t e s w ho unde r w e nt a p r oc e s s of pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng dur i ng t he c ol oni a l e r a w a s a bl e t o c r a f t s t a bl e a nd e f f e c t i ve r e pr e s e nt a t i ve i ns t i t ut i ons T he l e ga l s ys t e m gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e a nd e l e c t or a l s ys t e m e s t a bl i s he d i n I ndi a a l l ow e d f o r t he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of de m oc r a t i c nor m s a nd pr oc e dur e s i n I ndi a n s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l l i f e C ons t r uc t i ons of I ndi a n na t i ona l i de nt i t y a s w e l l a s a r a nge of f or m a l a nd i n f or m a l pow e r s ha r i ng a r r a nge m e nt s w e r e a l s o s uc c e s s f ul i n uni t i ng I ndi a s di ve r s e popul a t i on w i t hout s uppr e s s i ng s ub na t i ona l f o r m s o f i de nt i t y I n P a ki s t a n, i ne xpe r i e nc e d pol i t i c a l e l i t e s e nga ge d i n a r a nge o f unde m oc r a t i c t a c t i c s a nd be ha vi or t ha t be c a m e de e pl y e nt r e nc he d i n t he pol i t i c a l s ys t e m G r oup c onf l i c t a nd e t hni c f a c t i ona l i s m qui c kl y e m e r ge d due t o P a ki s t a n s unr e pr e s e nt a t i ve gove r n a nc e s t r uc t ur e a nd t he y w e r e e xa c e r ba t e d by a t t e m pt s t o i m pos e a u ni f i e d na t i on a l i de nt i t y on t he c ount r y s popul a t i ons T he r a pi d de ve l opm e nt a nd he i ght e n e d pol i t i c a l a nd c ul t u r a l i m po r t a nc e of t he P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y a nd t he i ne f f i c i e nc y o f de m o c r a t i c s ys t e m s i n t he s t a t e a l l ow e d t he a r m e d f or c e s t o r e pe a t e dl y a s s e r t t he i r c ont r ol ove r t he pol i t i c a l pr oc e s s I n c om pa r i ng t he de ve l opm e nt o f de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n, i t i s c l e a r t ha t une qua l l e ga c i e s of c ol oni a l r ul e a s w e l l a s t he de c i s i ons of i nd i vi dua l e l i t e s a f f e c t e d t he de s i gn of t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t u r e s r a t e a t w hi c h de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s be c a m e e s t a bl i s he d, i ns t i t ut i ona l e f f e c t i ve ne s s a nd a bi l i t y t o m a na ge s oc i a l di ve r s i t y i n e a c h s t a t e T he s e di f f e r e nc e s l e d t o r a pi d de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i n I ndi a a nd a r e pe a t e dl y s t a l l e d or r e ve r s e d t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s i n P a ki s t a n. D r B a r ba r a H i c ks D i vi s i on of S oc i a l S c i e nc e s

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1 I n tr od u c t i on I n A ugus t of 1947 t he B r i t i s h I nd i a n E m p i r e w hi c h ha d r ul e d t he s ubc ont i ne nt f o r ne a r l y a c e nt ur y of f i c i a l l y c a m e t o a c l os e a s t he n e w l y i nde pe nde nt na t i ons of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n w e r e bor n. T he t e r m i na t i on of B r i t i s h r ul e w a s t he e nd r e s ul t o f de c a de s of bi t t e r s t r uggl e be t w e e n gove r nm e nt a l a ut hor i t i e s a nd i nde pe nde nc e m ove m e nt s i n t he pol i t i c a l a nd c i vi l s oc i e t i e s of c ol oni a l I ndi a O ve r t he ye a r s t he s e i nde pe nde nc e m ove m e nt s a nd m ode r a t e s w i t hi n t he c ol oni a l gov e r nm e nt ha d pus he d f o r l i be r a l i z a t i on of t he pol i t i c a l pr oc e s s i n B r i t i s h I ndi a a nd t he i nc l us i on of I ndi a ns i n t he c ol oni a l gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e t hr ough de m oc r a t i c m e a ns T he s e de m oc r a t i c f or c e s di d a c hi e ve a gr a dua l ope ni ng of pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y a nd t he r e f or m of gove r nm e nt i ns t i t ut i ons B y i nde pe nde nc e t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt i nc l ude d n a t i ona l a nd pr ovi nc i a l l e gi s l a t ur e s f or t he I ndi a n popul a t i on w hos e s e a t s w e r e a s s i gne d on t he ba s i s of a n e l e c t or a l pr oc e s s W hi l e t he a ut hor i t y of t he s e l e gi s l a t ur e s a nd t he i r a bi l i t y t o i nf l ue nc e pol i c y w e r e e xt r e m e l y r e s t r i c t e d by t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt t he y n one t he l e s s be c a m e f or um s of de m oc r a t i c r e s i s t a nc e a nd pow e r f ul t ool s i n t he f or m a t i on of t he N a t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s t ha t ga ve r i s e t o I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. E xpos ur e t o w e s t e r n s t yl e pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons a nd t he e xpe r i e nc e of l i m i t e d de m oc r a t i c f r e e dom s i n c ol oni a l I ndi a ha d a p r of o und e f f e c t on t he popul a t i on P r om i ne nt f i gur e s i n t he pr e i nde pe nde nc e pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a nd na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s w e r e pa r t i c ul a r l y i nf l ue nc e d by w e s t e r n pol i t i c a l t h e or y a nd not i ons o f de m oc r a t i c gove r na nc e T he l e a de r s w ho w oul d dr i ve t he B r i t i s h f r om t he s ubc ont i ne nt a nd l a t e r

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2 de s i gn t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni c ons t i t ut i ons w e r e a l l e duc a t e d a t B r i t i s h uni ve r s i t i e s a nd m a ny be ga n t he i r c a r e e r s a s de m oc r a t i c a l l y e l e c t e d m e m be r s of t he c ol oni a l l e gi s l a t ur e s U pon a c hi e vi ng i nd e pe nde nc e t he f oundi ng e l i t e s of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n be ga n t he pr oc e s s of na t i on bui l di ng w i t h t he ul t i m a t e goa l o f e s t a bl i s hi ng pa r l i a m e nt a r y de m oc r a c i e s ba s e d on B r i t a i n s W e s t m i ns t e r m ode l G i ve n t he w e s t e r n e duc a t i on of t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni c ons t i t ut i on f r a m e r s a nd t he i r e xpos ur e t o de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s a nd pr oc e s s e s i n t he l e gi s l a t i ve a s s e m bl i e s i t w oul d s e e m t ha t t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of s t a bl e l i be r a l de m oc r a c i e s i n e a c h ne w na t i on w a s a n a t t a i na bl e goa l S om e w he r e a l ong t he pa t h t o de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on how e ve r I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n be ga n t o t a ke di ve r ge nt r out e s A br i e f gl a nc e a t t he pa s t ha l f c e nt ur y a s w e l l a s pr e s e nt da y s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l c ondi t i ons i n S out h A s i a r e ve a l s a w i de gul f i n de m oc r a t i c pe r f or m a nc e a nd s t a bi l i t y be t w e e n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. E ve n a s t he P a ki s t a ni C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y m e t t o c r a f t t he de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons of t he ne w na t i on, de m oc r a t i c p r i nc i pl e s a nd pr oc e s s e s w e r e l i m i t e d or i gnor e d. D om i na nt pol i t i c a l pa r i t i e s a nd e t hni c gr oups s ought t o m a r gi na l i z e t he r i ght s a nd r e pr e s e nt a t i ve pow e r of m i nor i t y g r oups C i vi l s oc i e t y w a s r e pr e s s e d a s P a ki s t a n s ought t o uni t e i t s di ve r s e popul a t i on unde r a s i ngl e r e l i gi ous i de nt i t y B ur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a l r e a dy i n s ha m bl e s f ol l ow i ng pa r t i t i o n, r e m a i ne d w e a k a nd i ne f f i c i e nt pr oduc i ng a n e ve r i nc r e a s i ng r e l i a nc e on t he P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y f or ba s i c s e r vi c e s T he de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt e s t a bl i s he d by t he P a ki s t a ni c ons t i t ut i on r e m a i ne d w e a k a nd c or r upt a nd w a s una bl e t o ke e p t he pow e r f ul a nd p opul a r m i l i t a r y unde r c i vi l i a n c ont r ol I n ba r e l y a de c a de P a ki s t a n s f i r s t a t t e m pt a t de m o c r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on f a i l e d w he n a m i l i t a r y c oup ove r t hr e w t he gove r nm e nt i n 1958 T he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of m i l i t a r y r ul e

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3 w oul d r e pe a t i t s e l f a ga i n i n 1977 a nd 1999 a s s ubs e que nt a t t e m pt s a t de m oc r a t i c gove r na nc e f a i l e d t o ove r c om e t he r a nge of pr obl e m s t ha t be f e l l P a ki s t a n s f i r s t pa r l i a m e nt a r y de m oc r a c y. W hi l e t he de ve l opm e nt of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y ha s b e e n pr obl e m a t i c i n m a ny a r e a s a s w e l l de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I nd i a ha ve r e m a i ne d s t a b l e a nd c om pa r a t i ve l y e f f e c t i ve T he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt a nd C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y of I ndi a s ought t o pr ovi de r e pr e s e nt a t i on t o t r a di t i ona l l y m a r g i na l i z e d or pol i t i c a l l y di s e nf r a nc hi s e d gr oups R e l i gi ous f r e e dom a nd c i vi l r i ght s w e r e e s t a bl i s he d a nd pr ot e c t e d by I ndi a s de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i on, a nd a hi gh de gr e e o f a ut onom y w a s g r a nt e d t o t he R e publ i c s e t hni c gr oups B ur e a uc r a t i c s ys t e m s a r e w e l l de ve l ope d a nd c om pa r a t i ve l y e f f e c t i ve a nd t he I ndi a n m i l i t a r y ha s r e m a i ne d unde r c i vi l i a n c ont r ol W hi l e a ge ne r a l m i s t r us t o r l a c k of f a i t h ha s c ha r a c t e r i z e d t he P a ki s t a ni popul a t i on s vi e w s o f d e m oc r a t i c gove r na nc e de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s ha ve be c om e de e pl y e nt r e nc he d w i t hi n I ndi a n s oc i e t y. T he e l e c t or a l s ys t e m i s ge ne r a l l y c ons i de r e d t o be f a i r a nd de m oc r a t i c pa r t i c i pa t i on i s vi e w e d a s t he m os t l e gi t i m a t e m e a ns of di s put e s e t t l e m e nt a s w e l l a s t he m os t e f f e c t i ve a ve nue of di s s e nt I t i s c l e a r t he r e f o r e t ha t w hi l e I ndi a n de m oc r a c y s uc c e s s f ul l y c ons ol i da t e d, t he P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s ha s r e pe a t e dl y s t a l l e d or f a i l e d. T hi s s t udy i nve s t i ga t e s t he r e a s ons be hi nd t he di s p a r i t y i n de m oc r a t i c pe r f or m a nc e be t w e e n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. T he t w o S out h A s i a n na t i ons s e r ve a s i de a l c a s e s t udi e s f or a c om pa r a t i ve a na l ys i s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on a nd c ons ol i da t i on pr oc e s s e s I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n a r e bot h i n f l ue nc e d by s ha r e d hi s t or i c a l c ondi t i ons a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s a s w e l l a s a s e e m i ngl y e qua l e xpos ur e t o de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s a nd pr a c t i c e s dur i ng t he c ol oni a l e r a C ont e m por a r y i s s ue s i n S out h A s i a de m ons t r a t e t he

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4 i m por t a nc e of unde r s t a ndi ng t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s A s P a ki s t a n e m e r ge s f r om ne a r l y a de c a de of m i l i t a r y r ul e a nd be gi ns i t s f our t h de m oc r a t i c pe r i od a nd a s t he c or ne r s t one s of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y f a c e t hr e a t s f r om r i s i ng r e l i g i ous f un da m e nt a l i s t pa r t i e s a nd e t hni c na t i ona l i s m i nve s t i ga t i ng t he s uc c e s s e s a nd f a i l ur e s of S out h A s i a n de m oc r a c y t a ke s on a s pe c i a l s i gni f i c a nc e U nde r s t a ndi ng how t w o na t i ons c a n a r r i ve a t s uc h di f f e r e nt e ndpoi nt s i n t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s w hi l e be gi nni ng w i t h t he s a m e ( or a t l e a s t ve r y s i m i l a r ) c ondi t i ons a nd c a pa c i t i e s c a n pr ovi de i ns i ght s i nt o t he pr oc e s s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on i n ge ne r a l a s w e l l a s un de r l yi ng f o r c e s a nd phe nom e na i n a c onf l i c t pr one a nd s t r a t e gi c a l l y i m por t a nt pa r t of t he w or l d. T o u nde r s t a nd de m oc r a t i z a t i on i n S ou t h A s i a a nd t he di f f e r e nc e s be t w e e n t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s i t i s f i r s t ne c e s s a r y t o unde r s t a nd t he s ha r e d hi s t or y of bo t h na t i ons P r e c ol oni a l i de nt i t i e s a nd s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e s e xe r c i s e d t r e m e ndous i nf l ue nc e on bot h na t i ons due t o t he r e l i g i ous ba s i s of pa r t i t i on a nd t he c r e a t i on of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. A n e xa m i na t i on o f t he gu i di ng i de ol ogy a nd gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e of t he B r i t i s h I ndi a n E m pi r e a s w e l l a s how B r i t i s h r ul e a f f e c t e d a nd a l t e r e d p r e c ol oni a l i de nt i t i e s a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s r e ve a l s a hos t of i s s u e s t ha t w oul d a f f e c t t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s T he de ve l opm e nt of na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s a nd I ndi a n pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s i l l us t r a t e s t he di f f e r e nc e i n pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng be t w e e n t hos e w ho w oul d be c om e t he f ounde r s a nd c ons t i t ut i on f r a m e r s of I ndi a a nd P a k i s t a n. F i na l l y t he ne got i a t i on pr oc e s s e s a m ong t he I ndi a n N a t i ona l C ongr e s s M us l i m L e a gue a nd B r i t i s h a ut hor i t i e s ove r t he c r e a t i on of P a ki s t a n, a s w e l l a s t he a l l oc a t i on of r e s our c e s f unds a nd i nf r a s t r uc t ur e be t w e e n t he t w o na t i ons pl a ye d ke y r ol e s i n a i di ng de m oc r a c y i n I ndi a w hi l e hi nde r i ng P a ki s t a n s t r a ns i t i on.

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5 A f t e r e s t a bl i s hi ng t he unde r l y i ng f o r c e s a nd c ondi t i ons l e a di ng up t o I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni i nde pe nde nc e t hi s s t udy t ur ns t o t he p r o s pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on a t t he t i m e of i nde pe nde nc e U s i ng t he a na l yt i c a l m o de l of L i nz a nd S t e pa n s f i ve a r e na s t he c i vi l s oc i e t y, po l i t i c a l s oc i e t y, r ul e o f l a w bur e a uc r a t i c a ppa r a t us a nd e c onom i c s oc i e t y of pos t i nde pe nde nc e S out h A s i a a r e e xa m i ne d. R e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a r e ve a l s t ha t I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n s t a r t e d t he i r t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s on a va s t l y une qua l f oot i ng i n t e r m s of s t a t e c a pa c i t y, i n f r a s t r uc t ur e e c onom y, a nd pol i t i c a l e xpe r t i s e T he ne xt t w o c ha pt e r s a na l yz e t he i ns t i t ut i on a l de s i gns of I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni de m oc r a c y a nd t r a c e t he i r e vol ut i on i n r e s pons e t o a va r i e t y o f i s s ue s a nd c on f l i c t s t ha t ha ve a r i s e n s i nc e i nde pe nde nc e B e gi nni ng w i t h a n a na l ys i s of t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni c ons t i t ut i ons a nd i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt s t he F e de r a l s ys t e m of I ndi a a nd t he c e nt r a l i z e d gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e of P a ki s t a n e s t a bl i s he d by e a c h na t i on s c ons t i t ut i on a r e c om pa r e d N e xt t he c a s e c ha pt e r s m ove t o t he gr ow t h of bur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a s w e l l a s t he r ol e of t he m i l i t a r y i n r e l a t i on t o t he c i vi l i a n gove r n m e nt i n I n di a a nd P a ki s t a n. F i na l l y t hi s s t udy e xa m i ne s t he f or m a t i on o f na t i ona l i de nt i t i e s a nd t he m a na ge m e nt of e t hni c pl ur a l i s m i n e a c h na t i on. T he s e c ha pt e r s w i l l i l l us t r a t e t ha t t he gr e a t e r de gr e e of de m oc r a t i c pa r t i c i pa t i on a nd pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng e nj oye d by I ndi a s f oundi ng e l i t e s l e d t o m o r e c om pe t e nt de c i s i on m a ki ng dur i ng t he i nt e r i m gov e r nm e nt a s w e l l a s s upe r i or i ns t i t ut i ona l de s i gn t ha t m a na ge d t o f o r e s t a l l m a ny of t he pr obl e m s t ha t P a ki s t a ni de m oc r a c y ha s f a c e d. F ol l ow i n g a r e vi e w of t he h i s t or i c a l pol i t i c a l a nd c ul t ur a l f or c e s t ha t ha ve s ha pe d I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s e s t he pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c s t a bi l i t y i n S out h A s i a a r e a na l yz e d i n t e r m s of c on t e m por a r y i s s ue s a nd c ondi t i ons

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6 C h ap te r 1: Th e D e v e l op m e n t of D e moc r a ti c I n s ti tu t i on s i n S ou th A s i a S t udi e s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on a r e w e l l know n f o r t he i r us e of hi s t or i c a l f a c t or s a nd c ondi t i ons a s e xpl a na t or y va r i a bl e s f or t he va r i ous l e ve l s of de m oc r a t i c pe r f or m a nc e e vi nc e d by c a s e s t udi e s unde r obs e r va t i on. T he us e of hi s t or y i s i m pl i c i t i n s t udi e s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on a nd c ons ol i da t i on a s s uc h l i t e r a t ur e f oc us e s on unf ol di ng t e m por a l pr oc e s s e s A s i de f r o m a f oc us on t he s e que nc e of e ve nt s i n de m oc r a t i z a t i on s t udi e s hi s t or i c a l c ont e xt i s a l s o s e e n a s a c r uc i a l c om pone nt of t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s w i t h va r i ous pr e e xi s t i ng s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l c ondi t i ons a i di ng or h i nde r i ng de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons ( P r i dha m 2000, 37 38) D e m oc r a t i z a t i o n l i t e r a t ur e a l s o a na l ys e s t he e f f e c t s of s oc i a l a nd c ul t ur a l va l ue s on t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s c onc e pt s t ha t a r e of t e n i gnor e d o r m i ni m i z e d i n m a ny a r e a s of po l i t i c a l s c i e nc e r e s e a r c h ( I ngl e ha r t 2000 91 92 ) W hi l e hi s t or y a nd c ul t ur e of t e n p l a y i m por t a nt r ol e s i n de m oc r a t i z a t i on t he or i e s t he i r e f f e c t s a r e us ua l l y v i e w e d a s be i ng l i m i t e d t o t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s i t s e l f P r e e xi s t i ng r e gi m e t ype a s s e r t s i t s i nf l ue nc e i n t he r ol e of ha r d l i ne o r m ode r a t e non de m oc r a t i c e l i t e s w ho m us t be ne got i a t e d w i t h w h i l e c ul t ur a l nor m s a nd va l ue s s ha pe t he i ni t i a l de s i gn of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons ( M c F a ul 2002 213 ) T he i n f l ue nc e of hi s t or i c a l c ondi t i ons a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s how e ve r doe s not e nd w i t h t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s a nd hi s t or i c a l l e ga c i e s a nd de e pl y e nt r e nc he d c ul t ur a l va l ue s of t e n pl a y a pi vot a l r ol e i n de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i o n a nd t he s ubs e que nt e vol ut i on o f pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons T h i s t he s i s a r gue s t ha t t he p r oc e s s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on i n S out h A s i a be ga n m a ny de c a de s be f or e i nde pe nde nc e a nd t ha t t he de ve l opm e nt p r oc e s s e s of c ol oni a l

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7 a dm i ni s t r a t i on a nd S out h A s i a n pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s w oul d ha ve a s m uc h of a n i m pa c t on de m oc r a t i z a t i on a s t he i ns t i t ut i ons t he m s e l ve s L i ke m a ny ot he r e xa m pl e s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on s t udi e s t hi s t he s i s a l s o s e e ks t o i l l um i na t e t he w a ys i n w hi c h l ong e s t a bl i s he d s oc i a l s y s t e m s a nd c ul t ur a l va l ue s i nf l u e nc e d t he out c om e of t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s H ow e ve r r a t he r t ha n vi e w i ng c ul t u r e a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s a s a ba c kgr ound upon w hi c h de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a r e a ppl i e d, c a r e w i l l be gi ve n t o s pe c i f y t he c ha ngi ng na t ur e of i nt e r a c t i ons be t w e e n po l i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l i ns t i t ut i ons T he w a ys i n w hi c h S out h A s i a n s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e s a nd va l ue s i nf l ue nc e d, a nd w e r e i nf l ue nc e d by, t he f or e i gn pol i t i c a l s ys t e m s of t he c ol oni a l e r a w oul d ha ve a pr of ound e f f e c t on de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. T o de t a i l t he gr a dua l e vol ut i on o f de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n S out h A s i a a nd t he c ha ngi ng i nt e r a c t i ons be t w e e n t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons a nd I ndi a s di ve r s e c ul t ur a l l a nds c a pe S out h A s i a n hi s t or y m us t be e xpl or e d i n de t a i l A l ook be yond t he i m m e di a t e hi s t o r i c a l c ont e xt s ur r oundi ng I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni i nde pe nde nc e yi e l ds f a r m o r e i ns i ght i nt o t he r e a s ons be hi nd I ndi a s s uc c e s s f ul c ons ol i da t i on a nd P a ki s t a n s r e pe a t e d ba c ks l i de s i nt o a ut hor i t a r i a ni s m S om e N ot e s on t h e U s e of H i s t or y an d C u l t u r e I n P o l i t i c al S c i e n c e R e s e ar c h T he hypot he s i s of t hi s t he s i s i s t ha t di f f e r e nc e s be t w e e n I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s a nd i ns t i t ut i ona l de s i gn l e d t o t he s uc c e s s f ul c ons ol i da t i on of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y a nd r e pe a t e d f a i l ur e s i n t he P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s T he r e s e a r c h m e t hods e m pl oye d i n t hi s pa pe r t he r e f or e r e l y he a vi l y upon i ns t i t ut i ona l a na l ys i s i n w hi c h va r i ous s t r uc t ur e s p r oc e dur e s a nd m e c ha ni s m s of gove r na nc e a s w e l l a s s oc i a l

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8 nor m s a r e c om pa r e d a c r os s t he t w o c a s e s t udi e s of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. I t i s t e m pt i ng t o be gi n a n i ns t i t ut i ona l a na l ys i s of S out h A s i a n de m oc r a c i e s by i nve s t i ga t i ng pos t i nde pe nde nc e i ns t i t ut i ons a nd t he i r de ve l opm e nt S uc h a n a ppr oa c h, how e ve r w oul d i gnor e t he w i de s pe c t r um of hi s t or i c a l f o r c e s a nd c ondi t i ons a s w e l l a s non pol i t i c a l va r i a bl e s t ha t c ont r i but e d t o t he un i que c onf i gu r a t i ons of I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons I n f a c t a r e s e a r c h de s i gn t ha t l i m i t s i t s f oc us t o i nde pe nde nt a nd s ove r e i gn I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n di s r e ga r ds t he f a c t t ha t t he r oot s of S out h A s i a n de m oc r a c y be ga n m a ny de c a de s be f or e i nde pe nde nc e w a s a c hi e ve d. T o unde r s t a nd w hy I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a nd gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s di f f e r e d s o gr e a t l y r e qui r e s a n i n de pt h r e c ons t r uc t i on a nd a na l ys i s of t he s ubc ont i ne nt s c ol oni a l hi s t or y a s w e l l a s a c om pa r i s on of c ul t ur a l s ys t e m s a nd t he i r e f f e c t s on pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons T he l i t e r a t u r e r e ga r di ng m e t hodol ogy i n pol i t i c a l s c i e nc e r e s e a r c h i s f ul l of c a ut i ona r y t a l e s a nd c r i t i que s of t he us e o f hi s t or y a s a s our c e of r a w da t a or a s a f i e l d upon w hi c h t he or i e s a r e t e s t e d. A s t he s oc i a l s c i e nc e s be c om e m or e c onc e r ne d w i t h t he a ppl i c a t i on of qua nt i t a t i ve m e t hods t o qua l i t a t i ve r e s e a r c h, t he us e of hi s t or y i s of t e n pr e s e nt e d a s a ne c e s s a r y but pr obl e m a t i c i s s u e A n unde r s t a ndi ng of how br oa d hi s t or i c a l f or c e s a nd m or e l oc a l i z e d c ondi t i ons a f f e c t e d t he c a s e s t udi e s unde r obs e r va t i on a r e vi t a l c om pone nt s of a ny c om pa r a t i ve s t udy. H ow e ve r m a ny s c hol a r s a r gue t ha t t he us e a nd pr e s e nt a t i on of hi s t or i c a l da t a s houl d be l i m i t e d, w hi l e t he f oc us of t he r e s e a r c h r e m a i ns on c ont e m por a r y o r r e c e nt pol i t i c a l de ve l opm e nt s or pr oc e s s e s ( T a r r ow 1995, 471) H i s t or i c a l r e c or ds a r e not obj e c t i ve a c c ount s of e ve nt s a nd l a c k us a bl e e m pi r i c a l da t a T he y a r e t he r e f o r e poo r m a t e r i a l f o r qua nt i t a t i ve a na l ys i s or t he unbi a s e d t e s t i ng of va r i ous t he or i e s P ol i t i c a l s c i e nc e r e s e a r c h t ha t i s m or e hi s t or i c a l l y o r i e nt e d or t ha t

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9 m a ke s he a vy us e of hi s t or i c a l da t a i s o f t e n c r i t i c i z e d f or e nga gi ng i n s e l e c t i on bi a s a s r e s e a r c he r s a r e a c c us e d of s e e ki ng out hi s t or i c a l r e c or ds t ha t m a ke t he s a m e c l a i m s a s t he i r hypot he s e s ( L us t i c k 1996 605 607) W hi l e t he us e of h i s t or i c a l da t a i n pol i t i c a l s c i e nc e r e s e a r c h c a n pr e s e nt obs t a c l e s t o t e s t i ng va r i ous t he or e t i c a l m ode l s a nd ha s a g r e a t e r l i ke l i hood of s e l e c t i on bi a s s uc h pr obl e m s c a n be a voi de d t h r ough t he e m pl oym e nt of c e r t a i n t he o r e t i c a l l e ns e s a nd r e s e a r c h m e t hods O f t he va r i ous i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t a ppr oa c he s t he hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t s c hool of t hought pr e s e nt s a s ol i d a r gum e nt f or t he us e of hi s t or i c a l da t a i n pol i t i c a l s c i e nc e r e s e a r c h a nd of f e r s t he be s t m ode l f or ut i l i z i ng hi s t or y a s a m e a ns of a na l yz i ng c a s e s t udi e s a nd t e s t i ng hypot he s e s H i s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m c r i t i c i z e s m a ny o f t he dom i na nt m e t hods of a na l ys i s i n c om pa r a t i ve pol i t i c s f or l i m i t i ng t he f oc us of r e s e a r c h t o a na r r ow t i m e f r a m e W hi l e m os t i ns t i t ut i ona l a na l ys i s t r e a t s i ns t i t ut i ons a s c ol l e c t i ons of s t r uc t ur e s a nd m e c ha ni s m s t ha t s e r ve t he pur pos e of m a i nt a i ni ng a pol i t i c a l e qui l i br i um hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i on a l i s t s a r gue t ha t i ns t i t ut i ons a r e l e ga c i e s of hi s t or i c a l p r oc e s s e s ( T he l e n 1999 382) F r o m t hi s v i e w poi nt t he na r r ow t e m por a l f oc us of ot he r s c hool s of i ns t i t ut i ona l a na l ys i s r e qui r e s i ns t i t ut i ons a nd pol i t i c a l s ys t e m s t o be t r e a t e d a s s t a t i c a nd m onol i t hi c i ns t e a d of f l ui d dyna m i c a nd di ve r s e T he hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t a ppr oa c h i s ba s e d on t he not i on t ha t i ns t i t ut i ons a r e t he r e s ul t of un f ol di ng t e m por a l p r oc e s s e s a nd t ha t t he c onf i gu r a t i on of pol i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l i ns t i t u t i ons i s due t o c e r t a i n hi s t or i c a l l e ga c i e s ( T he l e n 1999, 377 78) A c c or di ng t o t hi s not i on, a r e s e a r c he r s unde r s t a ndi ng of i ns t i t ut i ons c a nnot be s e pa r a t e d f r om t he hi s t or i c a l a nd s oc i a l c ont e xt i n w hi c h t he y de ve l ope d. H i s t or i c a l da t a i s of ut m os t i m po r t a nc e t o hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t s w ho s e e k t o r e c ons t r uc t t he de ve l opm e nt a l t r a j e c t or y o f va r i ous pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons t hr ough

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10 t i m e a nd a na l yz e how t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons i n t e r a c t e d w i t h one a not he r a nd w e r e a f f e c t e d by hi s t or i c a l phe nom e na ( H a y a nd W i nc ot t 1998, 953 ) W hi l e a s s e r t i ng t ha t i ns t i t ut i ona l a na l ys i s r e qui r e s a n i n de pt h unde r s t a ndi ng o f t he hi s t or i c a l de ve l opm e nt o f va r i ous pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t s a r e a l s o a w a r e of t he p i t f a l l s of ut i l i z i ng hi s t or i c a l da t a T o c ont r ol f or i na c c ur a c i e s a nd s ubj e c t i vi t y i n hi s t or i c a l r e c or ds t he s e s c hol a r s e m pl oy a va r i e t y of r e s e a r c h m e t hods a i m e d a t c r e a t i ng obj e c t i ve a ppr a i s a l s of hi s t or y W hi l e m uc h of t he hi s t or i c a l l y or i e nt e d pol i t i c a l s c i e nc e r e s e a r c h ha s m a de us e of a w i de t e m por a l t i m e f r a m e a nd ha s i nve s t i ga t e d va r i ous e ve nt s f i gur e s o r i ns t i t ut i ons s uc h e xt e ns i ve us e of hi s t or i c a l da t a i s unde r t a ke n m a i nl y t o i nc r e a s e t he num be r of r e l e v a nt obs e r va t i ons f or hypo t he s i s t e s t i ng. S uc h obs e r va t i on a c c um ul a t i on c a n e a s i l y l e a d t o t he ki nd of s e l e c t i on bi a s c i t e d by c r i t i c s H i s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t m e t hods a ddr e s s t hi s i s s ue by m a ki ng us e of pr oc e s s t r a c i ng m e t hods i n h i s t or i c a l r e s e a r c h. P r oc e s s t r a c i ng a voi ds t he t r e a t m e nt of va r i ous de c i s i ons or pha s e s of de ve l opm e nt a s di s c r e t e da t a po i nt s a m a s s e d t o s um m a r i z e a pr oc e s s of i ns t i t ut i ona l de ve l opm e nt a nd i ns t e a d a t t e m pt s t o c onne c t t he pha s e s of i ns t i t ut i ona l e vol ut i on ( T a r r ow 1995 472 473 ) B y f oc us i ng on t he s e que nc e a nd t i m i ng of de c i s i ons a nd f a c t or s i n i ns t i t ut i ona l e vol ut i on pr o c e s s t r a c i ng m e t hods c a n s he d l i ght on t he r e a s ons be hi nd va r i ous de ve l opm e nt a l t r a j e c t or i e s a nd c onf i gur a t i ons o f pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons ( T he l e n 1999 387 88) P r oc e s s t r a c i ng m e t hods a nd a ge ne r a l f oc us on t h e s e que nc e of e ve nt s i n i ns t i t ut i ona l a na l ys i s c a n a l s o be c oupl e d w i t h e ve nt hi s t or y m ode l s w hi c h s e e k t o m e a s ur e t he dur a t i on o f t i m e s pe nt i n a pa r t i c ul a r s oc i a l s t a t e a nd how dur a t i on a f f e c t s t he ne xt s t e p i n a p r oc e s s of de ve l opm e nt S uc h a n a p pr oa c h, w he n a ppl i e d t o i ns t i t ut i ona l

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11 a na l ys i s pr ovi de s a m or e e f f e c t i ve m e a ns of e va l ua t i ng hi s t or i c a l da t a a nd c om pa r i ng pr oc e s s e s a nd out c om e s a c r os s c a s e s t udi e s ( S t e f f e ns m e i e r a nd J one s 1997, 1414 15 ) W hi l e hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m a nd t he pr oc e s s t r a c i ng a nd e ve nt hi s t or y a na l ys i s m e t hods s uc h a n a ppr oa c h e m pl oys gr e a t l y a i d i n t he unde r s t a ndi ng of i ns t i t ut i ona l de ve l opm e nt t he y a r e not w i t hou t l i m i t a t i ons H i s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t m e t hods a nd t he or i e s a r e of t e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r f a i l i ng t o de m ons t r a t e how hi s t or i c a l l e ga c i e s a r e s us t a i ne d i n i ns t i t ut i ona l de ve l opm e nt t hr ough va r i ous f e e dba c k m e c ha ni s m s ( T he l e n 1999, 391 92 ) F o r t una t e l y, t he g r ow i ng body of l i t e r a t ur e on pa t h de pe nde nc e i n s oc i a l s c i e nc e r e s e a r c h c a n he l p t o e xpl a i n how hi s t or i c a l i nf l ue nc e s c ont i nue t o r e a s s e r t t he m s e l ve s i n t he e vol ut i on of pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons P a t h de pe nde nc y i s t he no t i on t ha t t he un f ol di ng o f va r i ous pol i t i c a l phe nom e na a r e c ons t r a i ne d i n t he i r out c om e s by p r e vi ous de c i s i ons or de ve l opm e nt a l t r a j e c t or i e s ( G r e e ne r 2005, 63 64 ) M os t pa t h de pe nde nc y a na l ys i s f oc us e s on t he e vol ut i on a nd pe r s i s t e nc e of pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons t h r ough t i m e a n d s e e ks t o e xpl a i n w he n a nd w hy va r i ous de c i s i on s t a ge s or e ve nt s a c t t o a l t e r or c ons t r a i n pol i t i c a l out c om e s P a t h de pe nde nc e a na l ys i s of t e n e va l ua t e s i ns t i t ut i on a l de ve l opm e nt by a t t e m pt i ng t o pi npoi nt c r i t i c a l j unc t ur e s a nd pha s e s of e qui l i b r i um t hr oug hout hi s t or y. C r i t i c a l j unc t ur e s a r e e xpl a i ne d a s de c i s i ons or e ve nt s t ha t t r i gge r a n i ns t i t ut i ona l r e a c t i on w hi c h a c t s t o c ons t r a i n t he s ubs e que nt t r a j e c t or y of i ns t i t ut i ona l de ve l opm e nt C r i t i c a l j unc t ur e s a c t a s a m e a ns of di s r upt i ng t he pos i t i ve f e e dba c k l oops t ha t oc c ur w i t hi n a nd a m ong i ns t i t ut i ons dur i ng e qui l i b r i um pha s e s t ha t w o r k t o c ons t r a i n t he de ve l opm e nt a l t r a j e c t or y ( B e nne t t a nd E l m a n 2006, 258 260) C oupl e d w i t h hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t f r a m e w or ks of a na l ys i s pa t h de pe nde nc y t he or i e s he l p t o e xpl a i n how hi s t or i c a l f or c e s s ha pe d

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12 pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons a nd w hy t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons r e m a i ne d or s t r a ye d f r om t he t r a j e c t or i e s de t e r m i ne d by hi s t or i c a l l e ga c i e s T he hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t a nd pa t h de pe nde nc e m ode l s a ppl i e d t o pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons c a n a l s o be ut i l i z e d t o unde r s t a nd how s oc i a l a nd c ul t ur a l s ys t e m s w e r e a f f e c t e d by hi s t or i c a l phe nom e na T hi s t he s i s w hi l e c onc e r ni ng i t s s e l f p r i m a r i l y w i t h t he e vol ut i on of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a l s o m a ke s t he a r gum e nt t ha t s oc i a l c ondi t i ons a nd i de nt i t y i n S out h A s i a w oul d a f f e c t t he de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. A na l yz i ng c ul t u r a l a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s h a s be e n a pr obl e m a t i c a r e a i n pol i t i c a l s c i e nc e r e s e a r c h. M uc h of t he f oc us on c ul t u r e i n pol i t i c a l s c i e nc e ha s c onc e pt ua l i z e d i t a s a s e t of va l ue s a nd nor m s t ha t a c t t o e na bl e or hi nde r c e r t a i n pol i t i c a l de ve l opm e nt s T he s e c onc e pt i ons of c ul t ur e ha ve pl a ye d pi vot a l r ol e s i n de ve l opm e nt t he or i e s de m oc r a t i z a t i on l i t e r a t ur e a nd s t udi e s on e t hni c vi ol e nc e M a ny pol i t i c a l s c i e nt i s t s r e j e c t t he not i on t ha t c ul t ur e s houl d be s t udi e d a t a l l c i t i ng t he f a c t t ha t c ul t ur a l s ys t e m s c a nnot be t e s t e d or e va l ua t e d e m pi r i c a l l y ( W e de e n 2002 714 16) W hi l e i t i s p r obl e m a t i c t o t r e a t c ul t ur e s i m pl y a s a ba c kgr ound t o pol i t i c a l ph e nom e na upon w hi c h c e r t a i n ki nds of pol i c i e s or i ns t i t ut i ons a r e m or e o r l e s s s us c e pt i bl e i t i s a l s o e r r one ous t o i gno r e c ul t u r e a l l t oge t he r H i s t or i c a l i n s t i t ut i ona l i s m a nd pa t h d e pe nde nc y m ode l s of f e r i de a l f r a m e w or ks f or e va l ua t i ng c ul t u r a l s ys t e m s by t r e a t i ng t he m a s i nf o r m a l i ns t i t ut i o ns I n t hi s m a nne r s oc i a l o r c ul t u r a l i ns t i t ut i ons a nd t he i r de ve l opm e nt c a n be s t udi e d i n t he s a m e w a y pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons a r e e xa m i ne d T he hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t a ppr oa c h, w hi c h s e e ks t o c l a r i f y how i ns t i t ut i ons i nt e r a c t a nd i nf l ue nc e one a not he r c a n be a ppl i e d t o r e s e a r c h on t he e f f e c t s of c ul t ur e on gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s a nd vi c e ve r s a ( T he l e n 1999, 376 77 )

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13 T he a ppr oa c h t o hi s t or i c a l r e s e a r c h a dopt e d by t hi s t he s i s c om bi ne s t he m e t hod a nd t he or y of bot h t he hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t a nd pa t h de pe nde nc e m ode l s P r oc e s s t r a c i ng a nd e ve nt hi s t or y a na l ys i s w i l l be a ppl i e d t o hi s t or i c a l da t a t o c l a r i f y t he de ve l opm e nt a l t r a j e c t or y of va r i ous pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons a nd or ga ni z a t i ons i n S out h A s i a a nd t o m e a s ur e how t he t i m e s pe nt i n e a c h de ve l op m e nt a l s t a ge a f f e c t e d s ubs e que nt i ns t i t ut i ona l e vol ut i on. A t t e nt i on w i l l a l s o be pa i d t o how va r i ous i ns t i t ut i ons i nt e r a c t e d a nd i nf l ue nc e d one a not he r a nd how t he s e i nt e r a c t i ons c ha nge d ove r t i m e U t i l i z i ng t he pa t h de pe nde nc e f r a m e w or k, t hi s c ha pt e r i de nt i f i e s c r i t i c a l j unc t u r e s t ha t s i gni f i c a nt l y a l t e r e d t he pol i t i c a l e qui l i br i um t hr ough out t he c ol oni a l e r a a nd t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s I ns t i t ut i ona l c ons t r a i nt s t ha t l i m i t e d t he opt i ons a v a i l a bl e t o pol i t i c a l e l i t e s a s w e l l a s f e e dba c k m e c ha ni s m s t ha t m a i nt a i ne d i nf l ue nc e s f r om hi s t or i c a l f a c t or s t hr oughou t i ns t i t ut i ona l e vol ut i on a r e a l s o e xpl a i ne d. H i s t or i c a l r e c or d s w e r e s e l e c t e d f r om a w i de va r i e t y of s our c e s i nc l udi ng B r i t i s h, P a ki s t a ni I nd i a n a nd out s i de r s c hol a r s f r om t he f i e l ds of hi s t or y pol i t i c a l s c i e nc e a nd a nt hr opol og y. C a r e w a s t a ke n t o s ynt he s i z e i nf or m a t i on f r om a va r i e t y of s our c e s i n a n a t t e m pt t o a voi d bi a s on t he pa r t o f i ns i de r a c a de m i c s w i t hout e l i m i na t i ng t he i ns i ght ga i ne d f r om s uc h s our c e s T hr oughout t he c ha pt e r c ul t ur e a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s a r e e va l ua t e d t hr ough t he s a m e i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t l e ns t hr ough w hi c h t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e i s a na l yz e d. C ha ngi ng i nt e r a c t i ons be t w e e n c ul t ur a l s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons a r e e va l ua t e d i n t he hi s t or i c a l r e c or d t o p r ovi de i ns i ght i nt o t he e f f e c t s of va l ue s a nd s oc i a l nor m s on de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on a nd c ons ol i da t i on i n S out h A s i a

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14 P r e C ol o n i al I d e n t i t i e s an d S oc i a l S t r u c t u r e s T he f oc us of hi s t or i c a l r e s e a r c h f or t hi s t he s i s i s c onc e r ne d pr i m a r i l y w i t h t he c ol oni a l e r a f r om 1857 t o 1947 H ow e ve r f or t he p ur pos e s of e xpl a i ni ng how t he i nt e r a c t i ons be t w e e n s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i on s i nf l u e nc e d t r a ns i t i ons t o de m oc r a c y i n S out h A s i a i t i s ne c e s s a r y t o pr ovi de a s um m a r y of S out h A s i a n s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e s a nd c ul t ur a l s ys t e m s P r i or t o t he i m pos i t i on o f B r i t i s h c ol oni a l r ul e on t he s ubc ont i ne nt t he a r e a t ha t c om pr i s e s pr e s e nt da y I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n ha d be e n di vi de d a m ong va r i ous l oc a l ki ngdom s f or m os t of t he r e gi on s hi s t or y. P ol i t i c a l bounda r i e s i n p r e c ol oni a l I ndi a w e r e f l ui d, e xpa ndi ng a nd c ont r a c t i ng a s va r i ous r e gi on a l pow e r s w a xe d a nd w a ne d t hr oughou t hi s t or y. T he s t r onge s t f or m s o f s oc i a l i de nt i t y i n s uc h a n e nvi r onm e nt w e r e pr e dom i na nt l y l oc a l ba s e d on c a s t e a nd r e l i gi on a s w e l l a s l i ngui s t i c c ul t ur a l t r i ba l or e t hni c gr oupi ngs ( T a l bot 1995 693 695) W hi l e v a r i ous e m pi r e s a r os e t hr ough out S ou t h A s i a n hi s t or y t ha t w oul d pol i t i c a l l y uni t e t he r e gi o n s di ve r s e e t hni c i t i e s a nd r e l i gi ons t he de c e nt r a l i z e d na t ur e of pr e c ol oni a l gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s on t he s ubc ont i ne nt pr e ve nt e d t he f o r m a t i on o f br oa de r i de nt i t i e s T he f oc us on l oc a l i z e d i de nt i t i e s a nd s oc i a l c a t e gor i e s w oul d c h a nge dur i ng t he c ol oni a l pe r i o d, a s B r i t i s h r ul e uni t e d t he va r i ous pe opl e s of S out h A s i a unde r a c e nt r a l i z e d gove r nm e nt a l t e r i ng t he na t ur e of S out h A s i a n s oc i a l c a t e gor i e s T he or i e s of hu m a n di f f e r e nc e ha ve e xi s t e d f or m uc h of hi s t or y a nd va r y a c r os s c ul t ur e s a nd t i m e T he dom i na nt f or m s of s oc i a l d i f f e r e nt i a t i on i n I nd i a pr i o r t o B r i t i s h r ul e w e r e ba s e d on e t hno l i ngui s t i c gr oups r e l i gi o us a f f i l i a t i on a nd t he pe r va s i ve c a s t e s ys t e m t ha t gove r ne d i nt e r a c t i ons a m ong I ndi a ns o f a l l w a l ks o f l i f e W hi l e s i m i l a r s oc i a l

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15 c a t e gor i e s ba s e d on e t hni c a nd r e l i gi ous a f f i l i a t i on ha ve a r i s e n i n m a ny a r e a s of t he w or l d, t he c a s t e s ys t e m of I ndi a i s a s ys t e m of s oc i a l di vi s i ons t ha t i s uni que t o t he s ubc ont i ne nt T he di s t i nc t na t ur e of t he I ndi a n c a s t e s ys t e m m us t be unde r s t ood be f or e f ur t he r i nt r i c a c i e s of I ndi a n s oc i a l di vi s i ons c a n be e xpl or e d. T he c a s t e s ys t e m i s a s oc i a l or de r ba s e d upon H i ndu not i ons of r e i nc a r na t i on a nd t he pur i t y or pol l ut i on of di f f e r e nt a c t i vi t i e s a nd obj e c t s ( G hur ye 1969 7 8) I t i s di v i de d br oa dl y i nt o f ou r m a i n di vi s i ons c a l l e d V a r na s : t he pr i e s t l y c l a s s w a r r i or s a r t i s a ns / m e r c ha nt s a nd t he l a bor e r c l a s s T he s e f our di v i s i ons a r e f ur t he r di vi de d by t hous a n ds of s ub c a s t e s c a l l e d J a t i s T he s e J a t i s c or r e s pond t o va r i ous pr o f e s s i ons a nd l oc a t i ons O ne s J a t i i s a f i xe d i de nt i t y, a c hi e ve d by bi r t h t ha t c a nnot be t r a ns c e nde d. D i vi s i ons by J a t i s om e t i m e s c or r e s pond t o di vi s i ons be t w e e n e t hno l i ngui s t i c gr oups but of t e n c ut a c r os s a nd t r a ns c e nd t he s e di vi s i ons T he r e f or e e t hni c T a m i l s i n s out he r n I nd i a m a y c om pr i s e a d i s t i nc t gr oup but t hi s gr oup i s a l s o di v i de d by doz e ns of J a t i s ( B e t e i l l e 1967, 444 447) D e s pi t e t he r i gi d s oc i a l di vi s i ons a m ong J a t i s t ha t r e s t r i c t i nt e r m a r r i a ge bus i ne s s pa r t ne r s hi ps a nd i n s om e c a s e s e ve n t a l ki ng or phys i c a l c ont a c t be t w e e n m e m be r s of d i f f e r e nt J a t i s t he r a nk of e a c h J a t i on t he ove r a l l h i e r a r c hy i s no t f i xe d W hi l e i t i s ge ne r a l l y a gr e e d upon i n I ndi a n s oc i e t y t ha t c e r t a i n B r a hm i ns ( p r i e s t s ) a r e o n t he t op of t he s oc i a l hi e r a r c hy w hi l e unt ouc ha bl e c a s t e s a r e on t he bot t om t he r e s t of t h e hi e r a r c hi c a l s c a l e i s ve r y ne bul ous I n a ddi t i on t he pos i t i on of a J a t i on t he s oc i a l hi e r a r c hy f l uc t ua t e s t hr oughout hi s t or y, w i t h s om e r i s i ng hi ghe r i n t he s c a l e a nd ot he r f a l l i ng l ow e r a c c or di ng t o t he pe r f or m a nc e of nobl e de e ds or t he b r e a ki ng of a s oc i a l t a boo by m e m be r s of t he J a t i ( G hur ye 1969, 10 12) D e s pi t e i t s ba s i s i n H i ndu r e l i gi ous c os m ol og y, t he c a s t e s ys t e m ha s e xt e nde d i nt o t he s oc i a l di vi s i ons of I nd i a s m i nor i t y r e l i g i ous c om m uni t i e s a s w e l l C hr i s t i a n, M us l i m

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16 J e w i s h, J a i n a nd B uddhi s t c om m uni t i e s ha ve l a r ge l y a da pt e d t o t he c a s t e ba s e d I ndi a n s oc i a l or de r S uc h c om m un i t i e s ha ve a pl a c e w i t hi n t he ove r a r c hi ng c a s t e hi e r a r c hy a nd a r e a l s o s ub di vi de d a m ong t he m s e l ve s by va r i ous J a t i s R e l i gi ous di vi s i ons a l s o pl a ye d a s i gni f i c a nt r ol e i n t he s oc i a l s ys t e m s a nd not i ons of i de nt i t y i n p r e c ol oni a l I ndi a W hi l e i t i s o f t e n be l i e ve d t ha t t he r e l a t i ons hi p be t w e e n I ndi a s r e l i gi ous g r oups ha s be e n l a r ge l y c onf l i c t u a l t hr oughout hi s t or y, e s pe c i a l l y i n t he c a s e of H i ndus a nd M us l i m s r e l i gi ous i de nt i t y i n I ndi a ha s hi s t or i c a l l y be e n l e s s s i gni f i c a nt t ha n ot he r s oc i a l di vi s i ons D e s pi t e s om e i ns t a nc e s of r e l i gi ous pe r s e c ut i on a t t he ha nds of c e r t a i n M ugha l r ul e r s a nd t he us e of r e l i gi ous i de nt i t y a s a r a l l yi ng c r y by H i ndu ki ngs i n oppos i ng f or e i gn m i l i t a r y i nt r us i on s r e l i gi ous di vi de s i n pr e c ol oni a l I ndi a w e r e ge ne r a l l y non c onf l i c t ua l M ugha l E m pe r or s s uc h a s A kba r r ul e d ba s e d on a pol i c y of r e l i gi ous t ol e r a nc e a nd a c c e pt a nc e of I nd i a s pl ur a l i s t i c r e l i gi ous l a nds c a pe I n m a ny a r e a s of I nd i a H i ndu M us l i m S i kh a nd J a i n popul a t i ons w e r e i nt e r m i xe d, l i vi ng a nd w or ki ng s i de by s i de f or m a ny ge ne r a t i ons w i t hout a ny r e l i gi ous l y m ot i va t e d vi ol e nc e or c onf l i c t ( T a l bot 1995 704 706) R e l i gi ous i de nt i t y i n pr e c ol oni a l I ndi a ne ve r s e r ve d a s a s i gni f i c a nt s oc i a l di vi s i on due t o t he i m por t a nc e of r e gi ona l i de nt i t i e s T he pr e dom i na nt l y l oc a l i z e d na t ur e o f i de nt i t y i n p r e c ol oni a l I ndi a pr e ve nt e d t he f or m a t i on o f b r oa de r r e l i g i ous i de nt i t i e s A s B r i t i s h r ul e e xpa nde d ove r t he s ubc ont i ne nt how e ve r r e l i gi ous a f f i l i a t i on w a s i nc r e a s i ngl y us e d a s a m e a ns of uni t i ng p r e vi ous l y di s pa r a t e popul a t i ons ( T a l bot 1995, 716 718) W h i l e t hi s w oul d ha ve t he e f f e c t of c r e a t i ng l a r ge r m or e c ohe s i ve i de nt i t i e s t he a ppl i c a t i on of w e s t e r n i de ol ogy a ppl i e d t o c a s t e r e l i gi ous a nd r e gi ona l i de nt i t i e s t hr ough t he i m pos i t i on B r i t i s h r ul e w oul d ha ve da m a gi ng a nd une qua l e f f e c t s on t he s oc i a l i ns t i t ut i ons of S out h A s i a s r e l i gi ous a nd

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17 e t hni c gr oups T he i nf l ue nc e of B r i t i s h r ul e a nd t h e r e a c t i ons of c ol oni a l I ndi a s na t i ve popul a t i on a nd e l i t e s w oul d pl a y a c r uc i a l r ol e i n t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s B r i t i s h R u l e an d i t s I n f l u e n c e on t h e I n d i an an d P ak i s t an i T r an s i t i o n P r oc e s s e s F ol l ow i ng i nd e pe nde nc e a nd pa r t i t i on i n 1947, t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt s o f I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n be ga n dr a f t i ng c ons t i t ut i ons a nd de s i gni ng i ns t i t ut i ons f o r t he i r pl a nne d de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s T he p r oc e s s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on, how e ve r be ga n l ong be f or e i nde pe nde nc e a nd t he f or m a t i on of t he t w o na t i ons of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. T he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s s t a r t e d de c a de s e a r l i e r a nd a c hi e ve d gr a dua l de m oc r a t i c ope ni ngs t hr oughout B r i t i s h r ul e t ha t f i na l l y c ul m i na t e d i n f ul l i nde pe nd e nc e ( P a nde y 1969, 43 44) I n m a ny w a ys t he di ve r ge nt ou t c om e s of I n di a n a nd P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i ons t o de m oc r a c y c a n be t r a c e d t o t he pos i t i ons o f e a c h na t i on s f oundi ng e l i t e s i n t he s oc i e t y of B r i t i s h I ndi a a nd t he i r r ol e s i n t he i nde pe nde nc e m ove m e nt A s r e s e a r c h w i l l s how t he f unda m e nt a l di vi s i on be t w e e n t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni e l i t e s w ho or c he s t r a t e d t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s i s one of r e l i gi on. P a ki s t a n w a s f o r m e d l a r ge l y due t o c onc e r ns of t he I ndi a n M us l i m m i nor i t y ove r t he i r f ut u r e i n a H i ndu do m i na t e d f r e e I ndi a T he f oundi ng e l i t e s of I ndi a on t he ot he r ha nd w e r e p r e dom i na nt l y H i ndu a l t h ough S i khs a nd M us l i m s w he r e r e pr e s e nt e d t o a l e s s e r de gr e e i n t he i nt e r i m gove r n m e nt of I ndi a ( R os e n 1966, 61 62 ) T he r ol e of r e l i gi ous i de nt i t y i n t he f or m a t i on of de m oc r a c y i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n c a n be a t t r i but e d t o t he pos i t i on o f di f f e r e nt r e l i gi ous c om m uni t i e s i n c ol oni a l s oc i e t y a nd pol i t i c s a s w e l l a s t he na t ur e o f i n t r a r e l i g i ous r e l a t i ons dur i ng B r i t i s h r ul e

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18 T he B r i t i s h be ga n t o w r e s t c ont r o l of I ndi a f r om i t s na t i ve I nha bi t a nt s i n t he l a t e 18 t h c e nt ur y f ol l ow i ng t he c ol l a ps e of t he M us l i m l e a d M ugha l E m pi r e a nd t he de t e r i or a t i on of t he s ubc ont i ne nt i n t o s e ve r a l doz e n w a r r i ng ki ngdom s a nd p r i nc i pa l i t i e s ( T a l bot 1995 693 695) T he B r i t i s h a nne xa t i on of I ndi a w a s a s l ow p r oc e s s t ha t s pa nne d ne a r l y a c e nt ur y T he na t u r e of gove r na nc e i n B r i t i s h I ndi a a l s o c ha nge d ove r t he pr oc e s s of c onque s t a nd c ol oni z a t i on a nd c ont i nue d t o e vol ve up unt i l i t s e nd i n 1947. B ut t he f i r s t m a j or c ha nge of t he B r i t i s h gove r ni ng s t r uc t u r e i n I ndi a w hi c h w oul d ha ve l a t e r i m pl i c a t i ons i n t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s oc c ur r e d i n 1857, w he n uni t s of I ndi a n s ol di e r s i n t he B r i t i s h a r m y a l ong w i t h pe a s a nt s a nd de pos e d pr i nc e s a nd l a nd ow ne r s be ga n a n ope n r e vol t a ga i ns t B r i t i s h r ul e ( E dw a r de s 1968, 155) T he r e vol t w a s l a r ge l y a r e s pons e by c ons e r va t i ve e l e m e nt s of I ndi a n s oc i e t y, bot h H i nd u a nd M us l i m a ga i ns t B r i t i s h pol i c i e s a i m e d a t m ode r ni z i ng a nd w e s t e r ni z i ng I ndi a n s oc i e t y ( E dw a r de s 1968 149 ) T he r e be l l i on w a s t he f i r s t m a s s upr i s i ng by B r i t i s h s ub j e c t s i n c ol oni a l I ndi a a nd a s pe c t s of t he r e be l l i on w oul d r e pe a t t he m s e l ve s i n l a t e r na t i o na l i s t m ove m e nt s a nd t he t r a ns i t i on pe r i od. T he r e be l s s ha r e d a c om m on pu r pos e but w e r e di v i de d a l ong r e l i gi ous a nd c l a s s l i ne s T he M us l i m s uni t e d a ga i ns t B r i t i s h r ul e c a l l e d f or t he r e e s t a bl i s hm e nt of t he M ugha l E m pi r e i n I ndi a H a t i ng t he B r i t i s h but no t w a nt i ng t he r e t ur n of t he uns t a bl e M ugha l E m pi r e H i ndu a nd S i kh r e be l s f or m e d t he i r ow n m ove m e nt s a nd t he r e be l l i on w a s e ve nt ua l l y put dow n by t he B r i t i s h be c a us e of i t s l a c k of o r ga ni z a t i on a nd c ohe s i on. W e a l t hy l a ndow ne r s a nd pow e r f ul nobl e s i n t he a nne xe d t e r r i t or i e s s uppor t e d t he r e be l l i on be c a us e t he y f e a r e d t he i r s t a t us w a s t hr e a t e ne d by t he m ode r n i z a t i on r e f o r m s of t he B r i t i s h. P e a s a nt s j oi ne d t he r e be l l i ous a r m y un i t s be c a us e t he y f e l t t he i r t r a di t i ona l

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19 w a y of l i f e w a s t hr e a t e ne d by m ode r ni z a t i on a nd a t t e m pt s t o c onve r t t he m t o C hr i s t i a ni t y. W hi l e uppe r a nd l ow e r I ndi a n c l a s s e s s uppor t e d t he r e vol t t he e m e r gi ng m i ddl e c l a s s i n I ndi a w ho w e r e l a r ge l y w e s t e r n e duc a t e d I ndi a ns w or ki ng i n i ndus t r i a l c e nt e r s ha d no de s i r e t o r e t ur n t o pr e c ol oni a l c ondi t i ons a nd s upp or t e d t he B r i t i s h ( E dw a r de s 1967 150 151) T he I ndi a n ki ngdom s a nd p r i nc e l y s t a t e s not ye t a nne xe d by t he B r i t i s h a l s o l a r ge l y s uppor t e d c ol oni a l f or c e s hop i ng t o be c om e c l os e r a l l i e s w i t h t he pow e r f ul B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt ( G opa l 1965, 2) T he de s i r e of I ndi a n M us l i m s f or a r e t ur n o f t he I s l a m i c s t a t e l os t w he n t he M ugha l E m pi r e c ol l a ps e d, t he i na bi l i t y of H i ndus t o f or m a l a r ge r m or e or ga ni z e d m ove m e nt a nd t he di vi s i on be t w e e n t he m i ddl e c l a s s a nd t r a di t i ona l s oc i a l e l e m e nt s i n t he a nne xe d t e r r i t or i e s a nd t he r ul e r s o f t he P r i nc e l y S t a t e s ove r t he i r s uppor t of B r i t i s h r ul e a r e a l l t e ns i ons t h a t w oul d c ont i nue t o c ha r a c t e r i z e t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s i n c ol oni a l I ndi a a nd w oul d l e a d t o t he di vi s i on be t w e e n I ndi a n a nd P a ks i t a ni s t a t e bui l di ng a f t e r i nde pe nde nc e T he r e be l l i on a l s o i ni t i a t e d t he f i r s t s e t of r e f or m s of t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt i n I ndi a w hi c h l e a d t o t he s t a r t o f de m oc r a t i c ope ni n gs t o I ndi a ns t hr ou gh pol i t i c a l pa r t i c i pa t i on. T he B r i t i s h E m pi r e i n I ndi a ha d unt i l t he r e be l l i on be e n r ul e d by t he B r i t i s h E a s t I ndi a C om pa ny, w hos e a t t e m pt s t o m o de r ni z e a nd w e s t e r ni z e I ndi a n s oc i e t y, t he e xc l us i on of I ndi a ns f r om gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s a nd r a pi d m i l i t a r y e xpa ns i on i n t he ye a r s pr i or t o t he r e be l l i on w e r e vi e w e d by t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt a s t he p r i m a r y c a us e s of t he c onf l i c t I n 1858 t he I ndi a n t e r r i t o r i e s oc c upi e d by t he E a s t I ndi a C om pa ny be c a m e t he dom a i n of t he B r i t i s h c r ow n, a nd i t s go ve r na nc e w a s no w t he c onc e r n of P a r l i a m e nt T he f i r s t pr i or i t y o f t he ne w B r i t i s h a d m i ni s t r a t i on of I ndi a w a s t o e na c t r e f or m s t ha t w oul d pr e ve nt a not he r r e be l l i on f r om oc c ur r i ng. T he f i r s t s e t of r e f or m s

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20 c onc e r ne d t he na t ur e of B r i t i s h i n t e r f e r e nc e w i t h I ndi a n c ul t ur e a nd s oc i e t y, a nd i t w a s r ul e d t ha t t he c ol oni a l gove r n m e nt w oul d no t e na c t a ny l a w s c onc e r ni ng s oc i a l or r e l i gi ous pr a c t i c e ( G opa l 1965, 3 4) W hi l e m os t of I ndi a ha d be e n c onque r e d by t he E a s t I ndi a C om pa ny by t he t i m e t he B r i t i s h gove r n m e nt t ook ove r i t s a dm i ni s t r a t i on l a r ge a r e a s of t he s ubc ont i ne nt s t i l l r e m a i ne d unde r t he c ont r ol of l oc a l m ona r c hs D ue t o t he pe r c e pt i on t ha t r a pi d m i l i t a r y e xpa ns i on unde r C om pa ny r ul e ha d be e n a c ont r i but i ng f a c t or t o t he r e be l l i on a nd t he f a c t t ha t m os t o f t he i n de pe nde nt ki ngdom s ha d a l l i e d w i t h t he B r i t i s h dur i ng t he c r i s e s t he ne w c ol oni a l a dm i ni s t r a t i on f or ba de t he a nne xa t i on of a ny ne w t e r r i t o r i e s i nt o t he B r i t i s h I ndi a n E m pi r e T he r e m a i ni ng i nde pe nde nt ki ngdo m s be c a m e de pe nda nt a l l i e s of t he B r i t i s h E m pi r e a l l ow e d t o c ont r ol t he i r dom e s t i c a f f a i r s but de f e r r i ng t o t he B r i t i s h on a l l m a t t e r s of f or e i g n r e l a t i ons a nd de f e ns e ( E dw a r de s 1968, 155 156 ) T he s e P r i nc e l y S t a t e s w oul d l a s t unt i l 1947 a nd w oul d pos e uni que obs t a c l e s t o de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on i n I n di a a nd P a ki s t a n. T he m os t i m po r t a nt r e f or m i ni t i a t e d by t he ne w B r i t i s h a dm i ni s t r a t i on of c ol oni a l I ndi a how e ve r w a s t he r e s t r uc t ur i ng o f gove r na nc e i ns t i t ut i ons t ha t a l l ow e d f or a gr e a t e r de gr e e of I nd i a n pa r t i c i pa t i on i n c ol oni a l pol i t i c s O nc e t he r ul e o f t he E a s t I ndi a C om pa ny e nde d, a nd gove r na nc e o f c ol oni a l t e r r i t or i e s t r a ns i t i one d t o t he B r i t i s h C r ow n a nd P a r l i a m e nt t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t u r e w a s c ha nge d t o i nc l ude p r ovi nc i a l a nd na t i ona l a dvi s or y c ounc i l s c om pr i s e d m a i nl y of B r i t i s h m e m be r s b ut w i t h a n e s t a bl i s he d num be r of s e a t s a s s i gne d t o I ndi a ns T he s e a t s w he r e a s s i gne d by t he V i c e r oy w ho s e r ve d a s t he c hi e f e xe c ut i ve of B r i t i s h I ndi a T he V i c e r oy w a s a ppoi nt e d by P a r l i a m e nt i n B r i t a i n, a nd w a s he l d a c c ount a bl e t o t he m ( R os e n 1966, 51 53) H e w a s a l s o nom i na l l y a c c ount a bl e t o t he c e nt r a l a dvi s or y c ounc i l but ul t i m a t e l y ha d t he f i na l s a y i n de c i s i on

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21 m a ki ng a m ong a l l pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons i n I nd i a ( G opa l 1965, 17 18) T he s m a l l ope ni ngs i n t he a dvi s or y c ounc i l s a va i l a bl e t o t he I ndi a n pop ul a t i on w e r e m e a nt t o pr ovi de c ont r ol l e d c ha nne l s of di s s e nt t ha t w oul d r e l i e ve s oc i e t a l pr e s s ur e on t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt w hi l e s t i l l m a i nt a i ni ng B r i t i s h c ont r ol of I ndi a T he s e s m a l l ope ni ngs how e ve r w oul d he l p e m pow e r na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s a nd i m b ue t he m w i t h a de m oc r a t i c c ha r a c t e r t ha t w oul d g r e a t l y a i d t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s A s t he ne w gove r na nc e s ys t e m i n I ndi a be c a m e m or e e s t a bl i s he d, t he bur e a uc r a c y, w hi c h unde r c om pa ny r ul e ha d be e n r e s e r ve d a l m os t e xc l us i ve l y f or B r i t i s h c i vi l s e r va n t s be c a m e i nc r e a s i ngl y r e l i a nt on I ndi a ns T he ope ni ng of c i vi l s e r vi c e pos i t i ons t o I ndi a ns w a s l a r ge l y due t o t he r a pi d gr ow t h of bur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons du r i ng t he e a r l y 1900s w hi c h be c a m e i nc r e a s i ngl y c om pl e x a s t he num be r o f pos i t i ons g r e w f a s t e r t ha n t he B r i t i s h popul a t i on i n t he s ubc ont i ne nt B y i nde pe nde nc e m a ny pr om i ne nt c i vi l s e r vi c e pos i t i ons w e r e f i l l e d by I ndi a ns w ho w oul d he l p p r ovi de i nt a c t bu r e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons t o t r a ns i t i oni ng I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n ( R os e n 1966, 54 56 ) T h e G r ow t h of N at i on a l i s t M ove m e n t s a n d t h e i r D e m oc r at i c C h ar ac t e r T he r e s t r uc t ur i ng of t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt i n 18 58 ope ne d a s m a l l doo r t o t he I ndi a n popul a t i on f or pa r t i c i pa t i on i n t he a dvi s or y c ounc i l s a nd c i vi l s e r vi c e T hi s doo r w a s pus he d w i de r ove r t he ne xt d e c a de s by s t r e ngt he ni ng na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s i n c ol oni a l I ndi a t ha t r e s ul t e d i n a s e r i e s of r e f or m s u nde r t a ke n by t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt U nde r t he a ut hor i t y of L i be r a l V i c e r oys a t t he e nd of t he 1800s p r ovi nc i a l a nd m uni c i pa l gove r nm e nt s w e r e gi ve n m o r e a ut onom y a nd be c a m e e l e c t e d l e gi s l a t ur e s r a t he r t ha n

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22 c ounc i l s a ppoi nt e d by t he V i c e r oy L e gi s l a t i on w a s a l s o pa s s e d t o a l l ow I ndi a ns t o r un f or e l e c t e d of f i c e a nd s om e pr ovi nc e s e ve n m a nda t e d t ha t t w o t h i r ds of t he l e gi s l a t ur e be r e s e r ve d f or I ndi a n m e m be r s ( G opa l 1965 145 14 8) W hi l e t he m a s s i ve bur e a uc r a c y of c ol oni a l I ndi a know n a s t he I ndi a n C i vi l S e r vi c e w a s nom i na l l y ope n t o I ndi a ns s i nc e i t s c r e a t i on i n t he 1850s t he l e ngt hy e xa m i na t i on pr o c e s s t ha t a s s i gne d pos i t i ons w a s he l d i n L ondon. E ve n t he f e w I ndi a n l a w ye r s a nd doc t or s w ho m a na ge d t o s a ve up t he l a r ge s um of m one y ne e de d t o t r a ve l t o L ondon a nd c om p l e t e t he e xa m s w e r e f r e que nt l y pa s s e d ove r i n f a vor o f B r i t i s h c a ndi da t e s a nd by 1915 I n di a ns m a de up onl y 5 pe r c e nt o f t he I C S ( M c L a ne 1977 24 26 ) T he s e l i m i t a t i ons w o ul d s l ow l y e r ode ove r t he ne xt f e w de c a de s e xa m i na t i ons f or l ow e r l e ve l pos i t i ons w e r e e ve nt ua l l y he l d i n I ndi a a nd t he a ge l i m i t f o r t he e xa m s w a s r a i s e d s o t ha t m or e I ndi a ns c oul d c om pe t e ( L ow e t a l 1977 4 ) C i vi l s o c i e t y i n I ndi a de ve l ope d r a pi dl y i n t he l a t e 1800s a nd e a r l y 1900s due t o ne w l a w s t ha t a l l ow e d f or f r e e dom s of p r e s s a nd a s s e m bl y f or t he I ndi a n popul a t i on G r ow i ng i ndus t r i a l s e c t or s c r e a t e d a r i s i ng m i ddl e c l a s s w h o i nc r e a s i ngl y s ought w e s t e r n e duc a t i on a s a m e a ns of be t t e r i ng t he i r pos i t i ons i n c ol oni a l s oc i e t y ( C or b r i dge a nd H a r r i s s 2000, 11) M or e a nd m or e I ndi a ns w e r e be c om i ng l a w ye r s doc t or s a nd c i vi l s e r va nt s a nd w i t h t he c r e a t i on of e l e c t e d l e gi s l a t ur e s I ndi a ns w e r e a l s o pa r t i c i pa t i ng i n de m oc r a t i c pol i t i c s A s s oc i a t i on s of e duc a t e d, pol i t i c a l l y s a vvy, l a r ge l y m i ddl e c l a s s I ndi a ns be ga n t o f or m f r om t he l a t e 1880s un t i l t he e nd of B r i t i s h r u l e T he s e or ga ni z a t i ons be ga n a s f or um s f o r di s c us s i ng t he s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l i s s ue s of t he da y a n d m os t w e r e not a nt a goni s t i c t o B r i t i s h r ul e M a ny of t he s e or ga ni z a t i ons w e r e i n f a c t s ym pa t he t i c t o t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt a nd s how e d l i t t l e i f a ny i nt e r e s t i n r e f o r m i ng t he s ys t e m ( P a nde y

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23 1969, 42 43 ) B ut a s t he e duc a t e d m i ddl e c l a s s gr e w a nd a s t h e y i nc r e a s i ngl y f e l t t he i r a m bi t i ons l i m i t e d by t he B r i t i s h m onopol y on gove r nm e nt a nd c i vi l s e r vi c e i ns t i t ut i ons t he I ndi a n c i vi l s oc i e t y be ga n t o c ha nge i t s t one b e c om i ng i nc r e a s i ngl y c r i t i c a l o f t he B r i t i s h ( L ow e t a l 1977 7 ) M a ny s uc h or ga ni z a t i on s f or m e d a t t he t ur n of t he c e nt ur y T he or ga ni z a t i on, pur pos e a nd c a pa c i t y of t he s e gr oups w e r e va r i e d a nd di ve r s e a s w e r e t he i r e f f e c t s on B r i t i s h r u l e O f a l l t he s e e a r l y o r ga ni z a t i ons t he I ndi a n N a t i ona l C ongr e s s a nd t he M us l i m L e a gue w oul d be c om e t he m os t s t a bl e a nd e f f e c t i ve p l a ye r s i n I ndi a n c i vi l s oc i e t y a nd w oul d i nde l i bl y s ha pe t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s of pos t c ol oni a l I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. T he I ndi a n N a t i ona l C ongr e s s be ga n a s a s m a l l a s s oc i a t i on of I ndi a n l a w ye r s a nd pr ovi nc i a l c ounc i l m e m be r s i n 1888 ( C or br i dge a n d H a r r i s s 2000, 3 4 ) I t s pu r pos e w a s t o di s c us s s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l i s s ue s a nd t o m a ke m ode s t pol i c y r e c om m e nda t i ons t o t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt T he f ounde r s o f t he C ongr e s s or i gi na l l y be l i e ve d t ha t B r i t i s h r ul e ha d br ought a bout p os i t i ve c ha nge s i n I nd i a s s oc i e t y a nd e c onom y, but t ha t s m a l l c ha nge s c oul d be i m pl e m e nt e d t o i m pr ove t he c on di t i ons of t he I ndi a n popu l a t i on. S i m i l a r l y, t he va r i ous or ga ni z a t i ons t ha t w oul d e ve nt ua l l y c oa l e s c e i nt o t he M us l i m L e a gue w e r e f or m e d by s uppo r t e r s of t he B r i t i s h. T he e a r l y L e a gue w a s f or m e d how e ve r by uppe r c l a s s M us l i m l a ndow ne r s a nd m ona r c hs i n t he P r i nc e l y s t a t e s w ho a dvoc a t e d t he c r e a t i on of r i ght s a nd pr ot e c t i ons f o r I ndi a n M us l i m s due t o t he i r s t a t us a s a r e l i gi ous m i nor i t y ( M c L a ne 1 977, 322 323) T h e I N C be c a m e i nc r e a s i ngl y hos t i l e t o B r i t i s h r ul e a s t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt f a i l e d t o a d dr e s s a s e r i e s of s oc i a l pr obl e m s a nd r e l i gi ous vi ol e nc e t ha t a r os e du r i ng t he e a r l y 1900s ( M c L a nc e 1977, 53 ) T he I N C be ga n t o c a l l f o r s w e e pi ng r e f o r m s of t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt i nc l udi ng e l e c t i ons t o a l l

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24 l e gi s l a t i ve a s s e m bl i e s t he ope ni ng o f a l l gove r nm e nt a nd bur e a uc r a t i c pos i t i ons t o I ndi a n c a ndi da t e s a nd f or a g r e a t e r c ont r ol of t he e c onom y by I ndi a ns C ongr e s s e nvi s i one d a s e l f r ul i ng B r i t i s h c ol ony t ha t w oul d s e r ve a s a t r a ns i t or y s t a ge be f or e f ul l i nde pe nde nc e ( P a ndy 1969, 45 47 ) I n t he f a c e of w i de s pr e a d s oc i a l unr e s t a nd gr ow i ng na t i ona l i s t s e nt i m e nt t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt m e t w i t h C ongr e s s l e a de r s i n 1909 a nd a gr e e d t o e s t a bl i s h e l e c t i ons f or l e gi s l a t i ve s e a t s a nd t o w i de n t he e l e c t or a t e w hi c h ha d p r e vi ous l y be e n l i m i t e d t o uppe r c l a s s I ndi a ns ( C or b r i dge a nd H a r r i s s 2000, 15) T he de m oc r a t i c r e f or m s o f 1909 a nd s ubs e que nt pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on a c c om pl i s he d by t he I N C w e r e f i e r c e l y c r i t i c i z e d b y t he M us l i m L e a gue I n 1906 w hi l e t he I N C w a s a gi t a t i ng f o r gove r nm e nt a l r e f o r m a num be r of I s l a m i c or ga ni z a t i ons j oi ne d t o f or m t he M us l i m L e a gue ( M c L a ne 1977 322) T he L e a gue w a s f o r m e d l a r ge l y i n oppos i t i on t o t he I N C a nd i t s p r op os e d r e f o r m s T he e a r l y M us l i m L e a gue w a s s t a unc hl y a ga i ns t de m oc r a t i z a t i on of c ol oni a l I ndi a T he y be l i e ve d t ha t t he M us l i m m i no r i t y ( a r ound 25% of t he popul a t i on ) w oul d ne ve r be a bl e t o de f e a t H i ndu pa r t i e s i n e l e c t i ons a nd w oul d be r e pr e s s e d unde r H i n du dom i na t e d go ve r nm e nt s ( P a nde y 1969, 60 63 ) T he M us l i m L e a gue w a s f or m e d by i nf l ue nt i a l e l i t e s w ho, i n ne got i a t i ons w i t h t he V i c e r oy, de m a nde d t ha t s e a t s be s e t a s i de i n l e gi s l a t ur e s f or M us l i m c a ndi da t e s a nd t ha t t he s e c a ndi da t e s w oul d be e l e c t e d by M us l i m s onl y, e s s e nt i a l l y c r e a t i ng t w o e l e c t or a t e s w i t hi n t he I ndi a n popul a t i on ( E dw a r de s 1967, 288 289) D e s pi t e t he c r i t i c i s m of t he I N C w ho c a l l e d t he M us l i m L e a gue s de m a nds di vi s i ve a nd unde m oc r a t i c t he r e f or m s o f 1909 i nc l ude d t he c onc e s s i ons of s e pa r a t e e l e c t i ons f or M us l i m s a nd non M us l i m s a nd r e s e r ve d s e a t s on a l l l e gi s l a t i ve bodi e s f or M us l i m s ( P a nde y 1969 76 77) W i t h t he r e f or m s of 1909 a nd t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of e l e c t or a l c om pe t i t i on, bot h t he I N C a nd M us l i m

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25 L e a gue w oul d be t r a ns f or m e d f r om e l i t e a dvoc a c y gr oups t o m a s s pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s B ut t he di c hot om y be t w e e n C ongr e s s e m br a c e of pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on a nd t he L e a gue s m i s t r us t of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons w oul d r e m a i n a f unda m e nt a l t e ns i on i n t he na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt T he di ve r ge nt de m oc r a t i c p r i nc i pl e s o f t he I N C a nd M us l i m L e a gue w oul d be c om e i m por t a nt a s pe c t s of t he t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s a s C ongr e s s a nd t he L e a gue w oul d r e s pe c t i ve l y be c om e t he f ounde r s of I ndi a a nd P a k i s t a n upon i nde pe nde nc e i n 1947. F r om C i vi l t o P ol i t i c al S oc i e t y: C on gr e s s T h e L e agu e an d P ol i t i c al L e ar n i n g T he e nt r a nc e i nt o t he e l e c t or a l a r e na of c i vi l s oc i e t y gr oups s uc h a s t he I N C a nd M us l i m L e a gue t r a ns f or m e d s uc h o r ga ni z a t i ons i nt o pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a nd pow e r f ul a c t or s i n t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s be t w e e n 19 09 a nd 1947 T he I N C a nd M us l i m L e a gue a nd m a ny s i m i l a r or ga ni z a t i ons w ho w oul d e nt e r c ol oni a l I nd i a n pol i t i c s w e r e c om pr i s e d of s m a l l gr oups of s oc i a l e l i t e s w i t h l i t t l e c onne c t i on t o t he l ow e r c l a s s e s of I ndi a n s oc i e t y. I n t he i r ne w c a pa c i t y a s pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s t he p r e vi ous l y i ns ul a t e d C ongr e s s a nd L e a gue w e r e f or c e d t o e s t a bl i s h t i e s w i t h l a r ge s e c t or s of t he ne w l y f or m e d e l e c t or a t e a nd r e f or m t he i r m e s s a ge s t o c a pt ur e t he m os t vo t e s ( L ow e t a l 197 7, 18 ) A dde d t o t he s e c ha l l e nge s w a s t he c ont i nue d B r i t i s h dom i na nc e i n gove r nm e nt T he r e f or m s o f 1909 s t i l l ve s t e d ul t i m a t e a ut hor i t y i n t he of f i c e of V i c e r oy a nd t he l i be r a l i z a t i on w a s onl y i nt e nde d t o pr oduc e a m or e e f f i c i e nt s a f e t y va l ve f o r t he m oun t i ng s oc i e t a l pr e s s ur e on t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt B ut t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of e l e c t i ons a nd pa r t i c i pa t or y de m oc r a c y a m ong t he I ndi a n popul a t i on w oul d pr ovi de a ve nue f or de m o c r a t i c va l ue s t o s pr e a d de e pe r i nt o

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26 S out h A s i a n s oc i e t y a nd w oul d s e r ve a s a pow e r f u l f or c e i n t he u l t i m a t e vi c t o r y of t he i nde pe nde nc e m ove m e nt s I n t he i r ne w r ol e a s pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s t he I N C M us l i m L e a gue a nd o t he r pa r t i e s w e r e f a c e d w i t h t he t a s k of e xpa ndi ng t he i r m e s s a ge a nd bui l di ng c oa l i t i ons a m ong di f f e r e nt c l a s s e s e t hni c i t i e s a nd r e l i gi ons T he I N C qui c kl y de ve l ope d a p l a t f o r m o f uni t y. T he y s ought t o r e pr e s e nt a l l of I ndi a i n t he l e gi s l a t ur e s a nd t he y de ve l ope d a br oa d c oa l i t i on be t w e e n t he r ur a l l ow e r c l a s s e s a nd ur ba n m i dd l e c l a s s ( P a nde y 1978, 630 ) T o a c hi e ve t hi s C ongr e s s a t t e m pt e d t o di ve s t i t s s e l f of a ny r e l i gi ous m e s s a ge or i c onogr a phy t o a t t r a c t r e l i gi ous m i nor i t i e s s uc h a s M us l i m s C hr i s t i a ns a nd S i khs T he f ounde r s of t he I N C w e r e H i ndu a nd a s i t s m e m be r s hi p e xpa nde d, m os t C ongr e s s s uppor t e r s w e r e H i ndu. H i ndus w oul d f or m t he ba s e of t he I N C t hr ough out t he c ol oni a l pe r i od a nd C ongr e s s w oul d e nga ge i n di ve r s e t a c t i c s t o a ppe a l t o t hi s ba s e of s uppor t C ongr e s s l e a de r s pr om i s e d l e gi s l a t i on on i s s ue s s u c h a s c ow pr ot e c t i on a nd s pe c i a l s t a t us f or H i ndu pr i e s t s i n o r de r t o a t t r a c t or t hodox H i nd us ( M c L a ne 19 77, 281 ) A t t he s a m e t i m e t he I N C t r i e d t o a dva nc e t he e c onom i c i nt e r e s t s of t he m or e w e s t e r ni z e d m i ddl e c l a s s H i ndus P e r ha ps m os t i m por t a nt l y, t he I N C i gnor e d t he c a s t e s ys t e m a nd r e a c he d out t o l ow e r c a s t e s a nd unt ouc ha bl e s pr om i s i ng t o do a w a y w i t h c a s t e ba s e d di s c r i m i na t i on ( P a nde y 1969 140 ) T he M us l i m L e a gue on t he ot he r ha nd s t r uggl e d t o be c om e t he s ol e voi c e o f I ndi a n M us l i m s T he L e a gue w a s c onc e r ne d onl y w i t h pr ot e c t i ng M us l i m r i ght s a s a m i nor i t y g r oup a nd a dva nc i ng t he e c onom i c a nd s oc i a l i nt e r e s t s of va r i ous M us l i m c om m uni t i e s C onc e r ne d w i t h C ongr e s s s uc c e s s e s i n a t t r a c t i ng M us l i m s i n e l e c t i ons t he L e a gue c a s t t he I N C a nd a H i ndu pa r t y a nd c a m pa i gne d on t he m e s s a ge t ha t I nd i a n

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27 M us l i m s m us t uni t e be hi nd t he L e a gue t o p r ot e c t t he i r r e l i gi on f r o m oppr e s s i on by t he H i ndu m a j or i t y I n e l e c t i on a f t e r e l e c t i on, t he I N C r e pe a t e dl y out pe r f o r m e d t he L e a gue i n c a pt ur i ng M us l i m s e a t s e s pe c i a l l y i n M us l i m m a j or i t y di s t r i c t s ( P a nde y 1978, 634) T he I N C w a s l a r ge r a nd m o r e or ga ni z e d t ha n t he L e a g ue a nd w a s a bl e t o c a l l upon a r m i e s of vol unt e e r s t o c a nva s s t he pr ovi nc e s I n a ddi t i on t o i t s l a r ge r ba s e of s uppor t C ongr e s s ha d m or e a c c e s s t o m e di a out l e t s s uc h a s l oc a l pa pe r s a nd r a di o s t a t i ons a nd w a s t hus a bl e t o r e a c h m o r e vot e r s i n t he e l e c t i o ns ( C or br i dge a nd H a r r i s s 2000, 8) T he M us l i m L e a gue how e ve r s a w t he i r unde r pe r f or m a nc e a t e l e c t i ons not a s a p r obl e m of or ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y but r a t he r a s f u r t he r p r oof of t he H i ndu dom i na nc e t he y o r i gi na l l y f e a r e d de m oc r a c y w oul d b r i ng ( A hm a d 1970 4 ) S om e of t he m or e r a di c a l e l e m e nt s of t he L e a gue a nd s m a l l e r I s l a m i c pa r t i e s l os t f a i t h i n de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m s c om pl e t e l y a nd be ga n l ooki ng f o r a l t e r na t i ve m e a ns of s e c ur i ng t h e i r i nt e r e s t s O r i gi na l l y t hi s t ook t he f or m o f boyc ot t s a nd pr ot e s t s a ga i ns t bot h t he I N C a nd c ol oni a l gove r n m e nt B ut t he a nt i H i ndu s e nt i m e nt of t he L e a gue s m e s s a ge a l s o i ns pi r e d r i o t s a nd c om m una l vi o l e nc e i n m a ny a r e a s S uc h v i ol e nc e w a s f r a m e d a s t he i n a bi l i t y of t he I N C t o a ddr e s s t he c onc e r ns of t he M us l i m c om m uni t y a n d t e ns i ons be t w e e n M us l i m s a nd H i ndus i nc r e a s e d ( P a nde y 1978, 635 638 ) A s t he I N C a nd M us l i m L e a gue s l ow l y c ons ol i da t e d t he i r pow e r a s pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s t he i r pl a t f or m s be c a m e i nc r e a s i ngl y na t i on a l i s t i c C ongr e s s ha d a c hi e ve d a w i de ba s e of s uppor t t ha t i nc l ude d di s pa r a t e i nt e r e s t s a n d c om m uni t i e s a nd w a s c onf i de nt i n t he i r pos i t i on a s r e p r e s e nt a t i ve s f or t he I ndi a n pop ul a t i on. B ut f o r a l l t he i r e l e c t or a l s uc c e s s e s t he I N C s t i l l l a c ke d r e a l pow e r i n t he c o l oni a l gove r nm e nt T he V i c e r oy of t e n i gnor e d t he i r r e c om m e nda t i ons a nd de m oc r a t i c pr o c e dur e s w e r e e ve n put on ho l d by t he

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28 B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt dur i ng t he w or l d w a r s ( P a nde y 1969, 166 ) T he C ongr e s s be l i e ve d t ha t t he i r s uc c e s s e s i n e l e c t i ons ga ve t he m a m a nd a t e f r om t he I ndi a n popul a t i on t ha t w a s be i ng i gnor e d by t he B r i t i s h a nd I N C goa l s g r a dua l l y t ur ne d f r om gove r nm e nt a l r e f or m t o f ul l i nde pe nde nc e ( M c L a ne 77, 271 ) T he M us l i m L e a gue a nd i t s s l ow l y gr ow i ng ba s e of s uppor t f e l t t he i r pol i t i c a l pow e r w a s l i m i t e d by t he I N C a s m uc h a s t he B r i t i s h, a nd n a t i ona l i s t s e nt i m e nt a m ong M us l i m s be ga n t ur ni n g not onl y t o i nde pe nde nc e but s e c e s s i on a s w e l l L e a gue l e a de r s hi p f e l t t ha t de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a nd pr oc e dur e s c oul d not pr o t e c t t he i r r i ght s a nd i nt e r e s t s a ga i ns t t he H i ndu m a j or i t y W he n C ongr e s s be ga n na t i ona l i s t a gi t a t i ons i n t he 1920s t he L e a g ue gr e w c onc e r ne d t ha t a n i nde pe nde nt I ndi a w oul d m e a n f ur t he r r e p r e s s i on a nd pol i t i c a l m a r gi na l i z a t i on. T he L e a gue be ga n t o a dvoc a t e t he f or m a t i on of a n i nde pe nde nt I s l a m i c s t a t e O nl y t hr ough t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of a s e pa r a t e M us l i m hom e l a nd, t he y be l i e ve d, c ou l d de m oc r a c y s e r ve I ndi a n M us l i m s ( H a qa nni 2005, 4 6 ) T he na t i ona l i s t f e r vor o f t he I N C a nd M us l i m L e a gue r e a c he d a l a r ge r a udi e nc e t ha n e ve r be f or e due t o bot h o r ga ni z a t i ons c a pa c i t y a s pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a nd t he i r m a s s m e m be r s hi p. B e t w e e n t he e a r l y 1920s t h r ough t he 40s bot h t he I N C a nd t he L e a gue be c a m e m or e f e r ve nt i n t he i r de m a nds f o r i nde pe n de nc e W he n t he i r c a l l s f o r s e l f gove r nm e nt f e l l on de a f e a r s bot h or ga ni z a t i ons e na c t e d l a r ge s c a l e s c i vi l di s obe di e nc e c a m pa i gns T he I N C w a s by t hi s t i m e unde r t he l e a de r s hi p of M K G a ndhi a nd J a w a ha r l a l N e hr u, bot h w e s t e r n e duc a t e d a nd pa s s i ona t e l y na t i ona l i s t H i ndus N e hr u a nd G a ndhi s ha r e d t he s a m e vi e w of a uni t e d I ndi a a n d i n t he i r c i vi l di s o be di e nc e c a m pa i gns t he y t r i e d t o a ppe a l t o H i ndus S i khs a nd M us l i m s t o uni t e be hi nd t he c a us e of na t i ona l i s m N e hr u G a ndhi a nd ot he r I N C l e a de r s w e r e pa s s i ona t e l y a ga i ns t t he

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29 f or m a t i on o f a s e pa r a t e M us l i m hom e l a nd N e hr u be l i e ve d t ha t de m oc r a t i c p r oc e dur e s a nd i ns t i t ut i ons c oul d a m e l i or a t e t he gr ow i ng r e l i g i ous di vi s i ons i n hi s c ount r y G a ndhi on t he ot he r ha nd be l i e ve d t ha t f unc t i oni ng de m oc r a c y i n I ndi a de pe nde d on c oope r a t i on be t w e e n H i ndus a nd M us l i m s H e s e t out t o a c hi e ve t hi s c oope r a t i on t h r o ugh a s e r i e s of s e m i na r s a nd s e r m ons de l i ve r e d t o m i xe d a udi e nc e s of H i ndus a nd M us l i m s H e a l s o a ppe a l e d t o l oc a l r e l i gi ous l e a de r s t o w or k t ow a r ds s oc i a l i nt e gr a t i on f or a l l r e l i g i ous gr oups i n t he i r c om m uni t i e s G a ndhi s c a m pa i gns how e ve r w oul d ha ve t he oppos i t e e f f e c t I n hi s que s t t o e s t a bl i s h a r e l i gi ous di a l og, G a ndhi a dopt e d t he s t yl e a nd s t r a t e gi e s of a r e l i gi ous l e a de r H e d r e s s e d a nd a c t e d l i ke a h ol y m a n a nd s ought a na l ogi e s f or c ont e m por a r y i s s ue s i n r e l i gi ous s t or i e s B ut G a nd hi s s t r a t e gi e s ha d t he e f f e c t of m a ki ng hi m l ook l i ke a H i ndu hol y m a n T he L e a gue pounc e d on G a ndhi s c a m pa i gns c l a i m i ng t ha t t he y w e r e a t t e m pt s by t he H i ndu dom i na t e d I N C t o i ndoc t r i na t e M us l i m s S uc h a c c us a t i ons f ound e a ge r a udi e nc e s i n t he w a ke of G a ndhi s f a i l e d c a m pa i gns w hi c h us ua l l y ha d t he e f f e c t of ga l va ni z i ng t he H i ndu po pul a t i on w hi l e e s t r a ngi ng M us l i m s ( K ha n 2007, 18 25) T he L e a gue l e a r ne d qu i c kl y t ha t r e l i gi on w a s pow e r f ul f or c e i n e l e c t i ons w he t he r by e xpl oi t i ng r e l i g i ous di f f e r e nc e s l i ke t he i r c r i t i c i s m of G a ndhi s c a m pa i gns or i n c l a i m i ng t o r e pr e s e nt t he r e l i gi on t ha t uni t e d t he i r e l e c t or a t e W hi l e t he I N C t r i e d t o r e m a i n s e c ul a r t o a ppe a l t o t he m os t v ot e r s t he L e a gue c l a i m e d t ha t i t w a s t he onl y t r ue I s l a m i c pa r t y e ve n c l a i m i ng t ha t M us l i m C ongr e s s m e m be r s w e r e not t r ue M us l i m s a nd s houl d be di s ow ne d by t he i r c om m un i t i e s ( H a qqa ni 2005, 9) T he us e o f r e l i gi on a s a pol i t i c a l t ool w oul d not be f o r got t e n b y t he M us l i m L e a gue f ol l ow i ng i nde pe nde nc e a nd P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c s w oul d be pl a g ue d by t he s a m e m e t hods a nd s t r a t e gi e s

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30 A s t he I N C a t t e m pt e d t o br oa de n i t s a ppe a l a c r os s t he r e l i gi ous di vi de t he M us l i m L e a gue i nc r e a s e d i t s de m a nd f or a s e pa r a t e M us l i m hom e l a nd. B y 1930, t he L e a gue w a s now unde r t he l e a de r s hi p of M oha m e d A l i J i nna h w ho w a s l i ke G a ndhi a nd N e r hu, a w e s t e r n e duc a t e d, s e c ul a r i s t U nl i ke t he p r e vi ous l e a de r s of t he L e a gue J i nna h ha d gr e a t f a i t h i n de m oc r a c y H e be l i e ve d t ha t M us l i m s a nd H i ndus c oul d c oe xi s t i n t he s a m e na t i on a s l ong a s de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a nd pr oc e d ur e s w e r e i n pl a c e t ha t gr a nt e d s om e de gr e e of a ut onom y a nd r e p r e s e nt a t i on t o r e l i gi ous m i nor i t i e s B ut J i nna h a l s o s a w t he us e f ul ne s s i n de m a ndi ng a s e pa r a t e M us l i m s t a t e t hr ough t he c r e a t i on o f P a ki s t a n. P r om i ne nt L e a gue m e m be r s ha d be e n a dvoc a t i ng t he c r e a t i on of P a ki s t a n f or a t l e a s t a de c a de be f or e J i nna h a s s um e d t he L e a gue s pr e s i de nc y a nd J i nna h w oul d c ont i nue t h i s t r e nd. B ut unl i ke hi s pr e de c e s s or s J i nna h be l i e ve d t ha t t he c r e a t i on of P a ki s t a n w a s unne c e s s a r y a nd unl i ke l y ( P a nde y 1969, 147 150 ) H e us e d P a ki s t a n a s a pow e r f ul s ym bol t o dr a w M us l i m s t o t he L e a gue a nd a s a t h r e a t i n t he ne got i a t i on p r oc e s s w i t h t he B r i t i s h a nd I N C t ha t he kne w w a s a ppr oa c hi ng. E l i t e B ar gai n i n g an d t h e E f f e c t of P ar t i t i on on D e m oc r ac y B y t he l a t e 1930s bot h J i n na h a nd C ongr e s s l e a de r s s e ns e d a s hi f t i n t he i r pol i t i c a l f or t une s a s t he w a r i n E u r ope c a us e d a c h a nge i n B r i t i s h pol i c y t ow a r ds I ndi a W i t h i t s m a ny i ndus t r i a l c e nt e r s a nd m i l i t a r y ba s e s I ndi a be c a m e a n i m por t a nt pa r t i n t he B r i t i s h w a r e f f o r t T he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt m or e t he n e ve r ne e de d t he c oope r a t i on o f t he I ndi a n popul a t i on A s t he w a r i nt e ns i f i e d a nd a s J a pa ne s e f or c e s m ove d c l os e r a nd c l os e r t o I ndi a t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt be c a m e m o r e w i l l i ng t o ne got i a t e w i t h t he I N C

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31 a nd t he L e a gue e s pe c i a l l y w he n t he f o r m e r t hr e a t e ne d a not he r m a s s c i vi l di s obe di e nc e c a m pa i gn ( S pa t e 1948, 5 7 ) I n s e ve r a l r ounds o f ne got i a t i ons t he V i c e r oy s ought t he s uppor t of t he I N C a nd M us l i m L e a gue i n t he w a r e f f or t C ongr e s s de m a nde d t ha t I ndi a be gr a nt e d i m m e di a t e i nde pe nde nc e a f t e r t he w a r i n r e t ur n f or t he i r s uppor t o f t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt T he M us l i m L e a gue w oul d pl e dge t h e i r s uppor t f or B r i t i s h pol i c i e s onl y i f a ut onom y w a s gr a nt e d t o M us l i m m a j or i t y di s t r i c t s f ol l ow i ng i nde pe nde nc e T he w a r t i m e ne got i a t i ons f a i l e d how e ve r a s t he C hur c hi l l a dm i ni s t r a t i on r e f us e d t o a c c e pt t he I N C s de m a nd f o r i nde pe nde nc e A s pr om i s e d G a ndhi l e d t he I N C a nd i t s s uppor t e r s i n a m a s s i ve c i vi l di s obe di e nc e m ove m e nt f ol l ow i ng t he br e a kdow n o f ne got i a t i ons C ongr e s s l e a de r s w e r e i m m e di a t e l y i m pr i s one d, a n d t he I N C w a s out l a w e d ( P a nde y 1969, 164 166 ) W i t h t he I N C s uppr e s s e d by t he B r i t i s h J i nna h a n d t he M us l i m L e a gue w e r e a bl e t o i nc r e a s e t he i r i n f l ue nc e ga i ni ng s uppor t e r s f r om M us l i m c om m uni t i e s i n s t a t e s s uc h a s S i nd, P un j a b a nd B e nga l w he r e t he I N C a nd l oc a l pa r t i e s ha d pr e vi ous l y dom i na t e d t he e l e c t i ons B y t he t i m e I N C l e a de r s w e r e f r e e d by t he e nd of t he w a r t he M us l i m L e a gue ha d gr ow n ve r y pow e r f ul i n I ndi a n pol i t i c s a nd ha d de ve l ope d a c l os e r e l a t i ons hi p w i t h B r i t i s h of f i c i a l s ( S pa t e 1948, 8) T he C ong r e s s how e ve r s t i l l r e t a i ne d t he l oya l t y of m i l l i ons of I ndi a n c i t i z e ns w hos e de vot i on ha d on l y i nc r e a s e d due t o t he s a c r i f i c e s m a de by G a ndhi N e hr u a nd ot he r s A t t he e nd of t he w a r t he I ndi a n e c onom y s l um pe d f ol l ow i ng t he di s m a nt l i ng of t he w a r t i m e i ndus t r i a l s e c t or s T he e c onom i c t u r m oi l c a us e d r a m pa nt une m pl oym e nt a nd hom e l e s s ne s s c ondi t i ons t ha t t he I N C qui c kl y e xpl oi t e d t o r e bui l d t he i r ba s e of s uppor t a m ong t h e I ndi a n popul a t i on I n t he pos t w a r a t m os phe r e of pol i t i c a l unr e s t a nd w i de s pr e a d r e s e nt m e nt of t he B r i t i s h gove r n m e nt t he

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32 I N C onc e m or e be c a m e a popul a r a nd pow e r f ul or ga ni z a t i on ( K ha n 2007, 34 36 ) P opul a r s e nt i m e nt i n B r i t a i n a l s o be ga n t o s hi f t i n f a vor of t he I N C s c a us e T h r oughout t he w a r B r i t i s h c i vi l i a ns s a w pi c t ur e s i n ne w s pa pe r s a nd ne w s r e e l f oot a ge of I ndi a n s ol di e r s f i ght i ng a nd dy i ng a l ongs i de t he i r oppr e s s or s T he f a vor a bl e a t t i t ude of t he B r i t i s h publ i c t ow a r ds I ndi a a s w e l l a s ne w s of t he de t e r i or a t i ng s oc i a l a nd e c onom i c s i t ua t i on i n t he s ubc ont i ne nt i nc r e a s e d de m a nds i n B r i t a i n t o g r a nt I nd i a i nde pe nde nc e I n 1945 a L a bour gove r nm e nt w a s e l e c t e d, w i t h w i de m a j or i t i e s i n bot h hous e s w hi c h pr om i s e d t o br i ng a bout s e l f r ul e i n I ndi a by 1948 ( P a nde y 1969, 172 175) T he gove r nm e nt i n I ndi a he l d e l e c t i ons l a t e r t ha t ye a r t he f i r s t i n ne a r l y a de c a de T he e l e c t i ons w e r e m e a nt t o de m ons t r a t e t he c om m i t m e nt of t he ne w a dm i ni s t r a t i on t o i nc r e a s i ng s e l f r ul e i n I ndi a a nd t o ga uge t he pow e r of C ongr e s s a nd t he L e a gue i n or de r t o de t e r m i n e w hi c h pa r t y w oul d c ons t i t ut e t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt ( K ha n 2007 42) T he I N C ha ndi l y de f e a t e d t he L e a gue i n a l l H i ndu m a j or i t y pr ovi nc e s a nd w a s a bl e t o f o r m m i ni s t r i e s w i t h l oc a l pa r t i e s i n t h r e e o f t he f i ve M us l i m m a j or i t y pr ov i nc e s B ut t he L e a gue ha d a c hi e ve d w i de s pr e a d popul a r i t y a m ong t he M us l i m popul a t i on w hi l e C ongr e s s w a s out l a w e d a nd t he I N C w a s una bl e t o r e e s t a bl i s h i t s a ppe a l a m ong I ndi a n M us l i m s I t a ppe a r e d t o B r i t i s h of f i c i a l s t ha t t he I N C w a s t he r e pr e s e nt a t i ve body f o r m os t of I nd i a bu t t he L e a gue ha d be c om e t he dom i na nt voi c e of I ndi a s M us l i m s I n 1946 M ount ba t t e n, t he ne w V i c e r oy, i nvi t e d N e hr u a nd t he I N C t o f or m t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt but ur ge d hi m t o i nvi t e J i nna h a nd t he L e a gue i nt o t he gove r nm e nt a s w e l l N e hr u a gr e e d, but a l l ow e d onl y m a r gi na l r e pr e s e nt a t i on f or t he L e a gue i n t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt a nd a ppoi nt e d M us l i m C ongr e s s m e m be r s t o ke y pos i t i ons i ns t e a d of of f e r i ng t he m t o t he L e a gue a s a m e a ns of i nc r e a s i ng M us l i m r e pr e s e nt a t i on ( P a nde y

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33 1969, 181 184 ) T hr ough ou t t he ne got i a t i on p r oc e s s i n t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt t he L e a gue c ont i nue d t o e nga ge i n unde m oc r a t i c m e t hods a nd s t r a t e gi e s f or a c hi e vi ng m or e pow e r J i nna h a nd t he L e a gue m e m be r s i n t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt c ons t a nt l y ve t oe d a s m a ny de c i s i ons a s t he y c oul d t o s t a l l a nd di s r upt t h e ne got i a t i on pr oc e s s a l l t he w hi l e c a l l i ng f or t he c r e a t i on of P a ki s t a n ( K ha n 2007 84 85) J i nna h f e l t t ha t be c a us e of t he m a r gi na l i z e d s t a t us of t he L e a gue t he dr a s t i c de m a nd f or P a ki s t a n w oul d be t he onl y m e a ns of s e c ur i ng t he m o r e m ode s t c onc e s s i ons w hi c h w e r e hi s t r ue de s i r e s H e a l s o be l i e ve d t ha t di s r upt i ng t he de m oc r a t i c p r oc e s s a nd i nc i t i ng c i vi l di s obe di e nc e c a m pa i gns a ga i ns t t he I N C a nd B r i t i s h w e r e ne c e s s a r y t o de m ons t r a t e t he L e a gue s t r ue pow e r a nd i nc r e a s e i t s pe r s u a s i on i n t he ba r ga i ni ng p r oc e s s I n hi s a ppe a l s t o t he M us l i m popul a t i on t o e nga ge i n boyc ot t s a nd s t r i ke s J i nna h onc e a ga i n us e d P a ki s t a n a s a t ool t o ga l va ni z e t he di s obe di e nc e m ove m e nt B ut he gr e a t l y unde r e s t i m a t e d t he a ppe a l of P a ki s t a n a nd t he a nt i C ongr e s s m ove m e nt J i nna h c r e a t e d s oon t ur ne d vi ol e nt ( S pa t e 1948, 9) A s J i nna h c ont i nue d t o pr om ot e P a ki s t a n dur i ng t h e ne got i a t i ons M us l i m s a l l ove r I ndi a be ga n r i ot i ng a nd c om m i t t i ng a c t s of vi ol e nc e a ga i ns t H i ndus a nd S i khs T he s e a t t a c ks i ns p i r e d r e t a l i a t or y r i ot s a nd s oon, l a r ge s w a t hs of I ndi a w e r e e m br oi l e d i n w i de s pr e a d c om m una l vi ol e nc e a nd ge noc i de I n r e s pons e t o t he gr ow i ng i ns t a bi l i t y i n I ndi a a nd t he f a i l u r e of t he I N C a nd L e a gue t o que l l t he m M ount ba t t e n a nd t he B r i t i s h a dm i ni s t r a t i on s pe d up t he t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s by m ovi ng t he da t e f or i nde pe nde nc e t o a ugus t of 1947 a nd w i t hdr a w i ng t r oops a nd o f f i c i a l s f r om t he c ol ony. T he B r i t i s h be l i e ve d t ha t a c i vi l w a r w a s i m m i ne nt a nd t ha t t he y ne e de d t o qui t I ndi a a s s oon a s pos s i bl e t o a voi d be i ng c a ught up i n i t I n t he w a ke of t he r i ot i ng a nd ge noc i de B r i t i s h of f i c i a l s be l i e ve d t ha t H i ndus a nd M us l i m s c oul d n ot c oope r a t e i n a n i nde pe nde nt I ndi a

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34 a nd be ga n t o a gr e e w i t h t he c r e a t i on of a s e pa r a t e M us l i m s t a t e ( K ha n 2007, 78 80) I n t h e ne got i a t i on pr oc e s s J i nna h de m a nde d t ha t t he i nde pe nde nt na t i on of P a ki s t a n be f or m e d f r om I ndi a s M us l i m m a j or i t y di s t r i c t s unl e s s C ongr e s s a gr e e d t o a l l ow c ons t i t ut i ona l c onc e s s i ons f or M us l i m s i nc r e a s e d a ut onom y f or M us l i m m a j or i t y a r e a s a nd a pow e r s ha r i ng a gr e e m e nt be t w e e n M us l i m s a nd H i ndus i n t he e xe c ut i ve b r a nc h. J i nna h gr a ve l y unde r e s t i m a t e d t he unw i l l i ngne s s o f C ongr e s s l e a de r s t o c ons e nt t o hi s pow e r s ha r i ng pl a ns G a ndhi r e j e c t e d hi s pr opos a l be c a us e he be l i e ve d t ha t t he di vi de be t w e e n H i ndus a nd M us l i m s c oul d s t i l l be br i dge d, a nd t ha t pa r t i t i on w oul d de s t r oy t he r e l i gi ous uni t y he t r i e d t o c r e a t e N e hr u be l i e ve d t ha t J i nna h s pl a ns w e r e unde m oc r a t i c a nd w oul d l e a d t o de a dl oc k a nd i ne f f i c i e nc y i n I nd i a s gove r nm e nt W i t h t he I N C s r e j e c t i on of J i nna h s pow e r s ha r i ng pr opos a l s t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt s a w pa r t i t i on a s t he onl y opt i on l e f t T he I N C l e a de r s hi p a gr e e d t o pa r t i t i on i n e xc ha nge f or a f a vor a bl e di vi s i on of na t i ona l a s s e t s a nd f or t he di vi s i on of H i ndu m a j or i t y a r e a s f r om t he p r ovi nc e s c e de d t o P a ki s t a n. I t w a s a gr e e d t ha t P a ki s t a n w ou l d be c om pos e d of a l l t he M us l i m m a j or i t y pr ov i nc e s but t ha t e a s t e r n P unj a b a nd t he W e s t of B e nga l w oul d be pa r t i t i one d a nd j oi n I ndi a T hi s p l a n w a s not a gr e e d upon unt i l J une of 1947 j us t t w o m ont hs be f or e t he t r a ns i t i on of pow e r ( P a nde y 1969 198 203) B ut s t i l l t he B r i t i s h gove r nm e nt r e f us e d t o s l ow dow n t he t i m e t a bl e f o r i nde pe nde nc e F ol l ow i ng t he a nnounc e m e nt of t he pa r t i t i on pl a n c om m una l vi ol e nc e i nc r e a s e d a s M us l i m s S i khs a nd H i ndus i n t he s oon t o be di vi de d pr ovi nc e s of P unj a b a nd B e nga l e m ba r k e d on c a m pa i gns of e t hni c c l e a ns i ng a nd r e t a l i a t or y v i ol e nc e T he B r i t i s h be ga n w i t hdr a w i ng t r oops c i vi l s e r va nt s a nd gove r nm e nt a l of f i c i a l s a t a r a pi d r a t e hopi ng t o a v oi d be c om i ng e m br oi l e d i n t he c i vi l w a r t he y t hought w oul d f ol l ow i nde pe nde nc e W h e n t he B ounda r y C om m i s s i on t ha t

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35 di vi de d up t he P unj a b a nd B e nga l m a de i t s f i na l de c i s i on M ount ba t t e n w i t hhe l d t he ve r di c t f r o m t he I ndi a n popul a t i on unt i l a f t e r a c t ua l i nde pe nde nc e hopi ng t o a v oi d e s c a l a t i ng vi ol e nc e on hi s w a t c h ( K ha n 2007 115 119) I n a ugus t 14, P a ki s t a n w a s de c l a r e d a n i nde pe nde nt s t a t e but t he a c t ua l bo r de r s e pa r a t i ng i t f r o m I nd i a w a s n t a nnounc e d f o r a not he r m ont h ( K ha n 2007, 126) T hi s de l a y c r e a t e d a m a s s i ve r e f uge e c r i s i s a s M us l i m s w ho f ound t he m s e l ve s out s i de of P a ki s t a n f l e d t o i t s ne w bor de r s T he ne w na t i on w a s c om pl e t e l y unpr e pa r e d f or t he i nf l ux of pe opl e f r om a l l a c r os s I ndi a a nd t he r e f ug e e s w oul d c r e a t e l ong l a s t i ng s oc i a l pr obl e m s f or P a ki s t a n a nd i t s f l e dgl i ng de m oc r a c y W hi l e I ndi a e xpe r i e nc e d i t s ow n r e f uge e c r i s i s i t w a s on a m uc h s m a l l e r s c a l e a nd ha d be e n e xpe c t e d a nd be t t e r p r e pa r e d f or by t he I nd i a n gove r nm e nt W hi l e I ndi a n r e f ug e e s w e r e l a r ge l y e t hni c P unj a bi s a nd B e nga l i s w ho c oul d be r e s e t t l e d i n a di f f e r e nt pa r t of t he i r hom e l a nd t he e t hni c m a ke up of P a ki s t a n s r e f uge e popu l a t i on w a s di ve r s e a nd f or e i gn t o t he ne w s t a t e ( H a qqa ni 2005 19 20) A ddi ng t o t he de s t a bi l i z i ng e f f e c t s of t he r e f uge e c r i s i s w a s t he l a c k of e xpe r i e nc e or pl a nni ng by t he M us l i m L e a gue w ho now f o r m e d P a ki s t a n s i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt B e s i de s t he f a c t t ha t m uc h o f t he L e a gue s e ne r gi e s ha d be e n de vot e d t o a c t i vi t i e s out s i de t he e l e c t or a l a r e na yi e l di ng f e w e xpe r i e nc e d pol i t i c i a ns not e ve n t he m os t e xpe r i e nc e d L e a gue m e m be r s w e r e p r e pa r e d t o gove r n P a ki s t a n. J i nna h a nd hi s s uppor t e r s i n t he L e a gue ha d ne ve r p r e pa r e d f o r t h e a c t ua l c r e a t i on of P a ki s t a n a nd i n t he r a pi d t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s f ol l ow i ng t he pa r t i t i on a gr e e m e nt t he y ha d no t i m e t o pl a n P a ki s t a n ha d a l w a ys b e e n a va gue c onc e pt T hi s a m bi gui t y ha d be e n c a r e f ul l y m a i nt a i ne d by J i nna h s o t ha t i t w oul d a c hi e ve t he br oa de s t a ppe a l a nd be c a us e he ne ve r i m a gi ne d t ha t P a ki s t a n w oul d e ve r t a ke t he f or m o f a n i nde pe nde nt na t i on T he

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36 unpr e pa r e d pol i t i c a l e l i t e s w ho no w c ont r o l l e d t he I s l a m i c s t a t e ha d t o be gi n t he pr oc e s s of de f i ni ng P a ki s t a n: ne got i a t i ng be t w e e n t he va r i o us c l a s s e s e t hni c gr oups a nd i de ol ogi e s t o c ons t r uc t t he pol i t i c a l s ys t e m of t he i r ne w na t i on. I n I nd i a t hi s p r oc e s s ha d l a r ge l y e nde d, w i t h t he m a i n oppone nt s t o c r e a t i ng t he s e c ul a r f e de r a l a nd de m oc r a t i c s t a t e e nvi s i one d by t he I N C de pa r t i ng t o P a ki s t a n w i t h t he L e a gue T he I N C ha d l ong e s t a bl i s he d t he ba s i c pr i nc i pl e s of t he i r vi s i on f o r a f r e e I ndi a onl y t he de t a i l s ne e de d t o be e s t a bl i s he d b y t he c ons t i t ue nt a s s e m bl y. C on c l u s i o n s W hi l e I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni e l i t e s be ga n t he p r oc e s s of dr a f t i ng c ons t i t ut i ons a nd de s i gni ng de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n 1947 t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons w e r e t he r e s ul t o f ne a r l y a c e nt ur y of c ha ngi ng pol i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l c ondi t i ons on t he s ubc ont i ne nt B r i t i s h gove r na nc e i nt r oduc e d a m ode l of c e nt r a l i z e d gov e r na nc e a s w e l l a s s ys t e m s of t r a ns por t a t i on a nd c om m uni c a t i on t ha t a l l ow e d t he f or m a t i on of br oa de r i de nt i t i e s a nd na t i ona l i s m A t t he s a m e t i m e de c a de s of p r e s s ur e f r om c i vi l s oc i e t y g r oups i n B r i t i s h I ndi a gr a dua l l y a l l ow e d f or t he i nc l us i on of S out h A s i a ns i n t he c ol oni a l bur e a uc r a c y a nd l e gi s l a t i ve a s s e m bl i e s T he l e ve l of de m oc r a t i c pa r t i c i pa t i on a nd pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng how e ve r w e r e une qua l T he r a c i a l i de ol ogy o f t he B r i t i s h a s w e l l a s s t r a t e gi e s e m pl oye d by t he M us l i m L e a gue w oul d e ns ur e t ha t M us l i m pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s w oul d ha ve l i m i t e d e xpos ur e t o e l e c t or a l pr oc e s s e s w hi l e a ge ne r a l m i s t r us t of de m oc r a t i c va l ue s w oul d be c om e i ns t i l l e d i n t he M us l i m popul a t i on a t l a r ge V a r i ous c r i t i c a l j unc t ur e s a ppe a r e d

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37 be t w e e n 1857 a nd 1947 t ha t di s r upt e d t he pol i t i c a l e qui l i br i um of c ol oni a l I nd i a s uc h a s e l e c t or a l out c om e s i n B r i t a i n W or l d W a r I I a nd t h e a c t i ons of va r i ous i nd i vi dua l s i n t he I N C M us l i m L e a gue a nd t he B r i t i s h a dm i n i s t r a t i o n. T he s e c r i t i c a l j unc t u r e s of t e n l e a d t o pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on a nd w i de r s uf f r a ge but i n m a ny c a s e s c ons t r a i ne d f ur t he r de ve l opm e nt a l t r a j e c t or i e s s uc h a s t he M us l i m L e a gue s pus h f or s e pa r a t e e l e c t or a t e s C ul t ur e a nd i de nt i t y a l s o pl a ye d dom i na nt r ol e s i n s ha pi ng t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s T he s e i de nt i t i e s w e r e i n t ur n, a l t e r e d a nd i n f l ue nc e d by pol i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons T he une qua l t r e a t m e nt of M us l i m s a nd H i ndus by t he B r i t i s h a s w e l l a s t he t r e a t m e nt o f c a s t e a nd r e l i gi ous i de nt i t y a s a dm i ni s t r a t i ve uni t s c r e a t e d ha r de ne d i de nt i t i e s a nd l i m i t e d oppo r t uni t i e s f o r c oope r a t i on be t w e e n H i ndu a nd M us l i m pa r t i e s a nd e l i t e s C ul t u r a l a nd r e l i gi ous s ym bol s w e r e a l s o m obi l i z e d by bot h t he I N C a nd M us l i m L e a gue t o ga i n s uppor t f o r t he i r na t i ona l i s t c a us e s J i nna h s a ppe a l f or a n I s l a m i c s t a t e br ought m a ny M us l i m s i nt o t he f ol d of t he L e a gue w hi l e G a ndhi s f a i l e d uni t y c a m pa i gns uni t e d H i ndus but a l i e na t e d M us l i m s A s t he ne xt c ha pt e r w i l l de m ons t r a t e t he s uc c e s s of r e l i gi ous a ppe a l s by t h e M us l i m L e a gue w oul d l e a d P a ki s t a ni e l i t e s t o r e l y he a vi l y on I s l a m i n f or m i ng a na t i ona l i de nt i t y. I ndi a n c ons t i t ut i on f r a m e r s unde r t he l e a de r s hi p o f N e hr u w oul d c hoos e t o e l i m i na t e a ny r e l i gi ous o r c ul t u r a l s ym bol s f r om I nd i a s de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons c hoos i ng i ns t e a d a s e c ul a r ba s i s f or I ndi a n na t i ona l i de nt i t y. T he hi ghe r de gr e e of pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng e xpe r i e nc e d by H i ndus i n c ol oni a l I ndi a w oul d a l s o s oon be c om e a ppa r e nt a s P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s qui c kl y be c a m e s t a l l e d w hi l e t he c ons t i t ue nt a s s e m bl y i n I ndi a w oul d c r e a t e a un i que a nd hi ghl y s t a bl e de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e

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38 C h ap te r 2: D e m oc r at i z ati on Th e o r y an d Th e S ou th A s i an Tr an s i t i on P r o c e s s T he a c hi e ve m e nt of i nde pe nde nc e by I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n i n 1947 a nd a t t e m pt s by bot h na t i ons t o e s t a bl i s h l i be r a l de m oc r a c i e s w e r e pa r t of a br oa de r gl oba l t r e nd f ol l ow i ng t he e nd of W or l d W a r I I T he vi c t or y of t he a l l i e s i n 1945 l e d t o w ha t S a m ue l P H unt i ngt on de s c r i be s a s t he s e c ond w a ve of d e m oc r a t i z a t i on, a s a ut hor i t a r i a n r e gi m e s c ol l a ps e d a nd f or m e r c ol oni e s ga i ne d i nde pe nde nc e T he s e c ond w a ve of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons w oul d l a s t unt i l t he 1960s w he n a r e ve r s e w a ve l e d t o t he c ol l a ps e or f a i l u r e of m a ny de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s T hi s r e ve r s e w a ve w oul d gi ve w a y t o a ne w p a t t e r n of de m oc r a t i z a t i on i n t he 1970s a nd 1980s a n ongoi ng g l oba l t r e nd t ha t H unt i ngt on c l a i m s i s t he t h i r d w a ve o f de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons i n w or l d hi s t or y ( H unt i ngt on 1991 12 13 ) T he pr ol i f e r a t i on o f de m oc r a c i e s a r ound t he w or l d be t w e e n t he 1940s a n d t oda y a s w e l l a s f r e que nt ba c ks l i de s i nt o a ut hor i t a r i a n r ul e by t r a ns i t i oni ng na t i ons ha s l e d t o a he i ght e ne d e m pha s i s on pa t t e r ns a nd pr oc e s s e s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on i n pol i t i c a l s c i e nc e r e s e a r c h. T he i nc r e a s i ng num be r of de m oc r a c i e s a r ound t he w o r l d ha s be e n l a ude d by m a ny s c hol a r s a s be ne f i c i a l t o gl oba l s t a bi l i t y a nd c r i t i que d by ot he r s a s t he c a us e of gr e a t s oc i a l t ur m oi l D e f i ni t i ons o f de m oc r a c y a nd m e a s ur e m e nt s of t he e f f e c t i ve ne s s of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons by pol i t i c a l s c i e nt i s t s ha ve di f f e r e d j us t a s m a r ke dl y. T he s e di f f e r e nc e s l e d t o a hos t of s c hol a r l y de ba t e s a bout w ha t na t i ons qua l i f y a s de m oc r a c i e s a nd w he t he r de m oc r a t i z a t i on a l l e vi a t e s or e xa c e r ba t e s s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l pr obl e m s s uc h a s e t hni c di vi de s pove r t y s oc i a l i ne qua l i t y a nd r e l i gi ous e xt r e m i s m

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39 I n or de r t o e xpl a i n t he di ve r ge nt pa t hs t a ke n by de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n, a n e xpl o r a t i on of t he va r i e d, d i ve r s e a nd of t e n c ont r a di c t or y l i t e r a t ur e on de m oc r a t i z a t i on i s ne c e s s a r y. T hi s c ha pt e r be gi ns by de f i ni ng s om e c om m on t e r m s us e d i n de m oc r a t i z a t i on t he or i e s w hi l e c l a r i f yi ng how d e m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n w i l l be e xa m i ne d du r i ng t he t r a ns i t i on p r o c e s s N e xt t he s oc i a l pol i t i c a l a nd e c onom i c c ondi t i ons of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n a t i nde p e nde n c e a r e e va l ua t e d i n t he c ont e xt of br oa de r t he or i e s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on. R e s e a r c h de m ons t r a t e s t ha t a va r i e t y o f t he i ns t i t ut i ons a nd c ondi t i ons c ons i de r e d ne c e s s a r y f or s uc c e s s f ul de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on w e r e pr e s e nt i n I nd i a w hi l e a bs e nt i n P a ki s t a n. T h e s e i ni t i a l c ondi t i ons w oul d a c t t o s ha pe t he e vol ut i on of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I n di a a nd P a ki s t a n, l e a di ng t o a f ul l y c ons ol i da t e d l i be r a l de m oc r a c y i n I ndi a a nd r e pe a t e d a ut hor i t a r i a n ba c ks l i di ng i n P a ki s t a n. D e f i n i t i o n of T e r m s : D e m oc r ac y, T r an s i t i on an d C on s ol i d at i on A m e r e gl i m ps e i nt o t he e ve r gr ow i ng body of de m oc r a t i z a t i on l i t e r a t ur e r e ve a l s l i t t l e c ons e ns us on w ha t de m oc r a c y a c t ua l l y m e a ns T he l a r ge num be r of de m oc r a c i e s t ha t e m e r ge d dur i ng t he s e c ond a nd t h i r d w a ve s c r e a t e d va s t l y di f f e r e nt i ns t i t ut i ona l c onf i gur a t i ons a nd de m oc r a t i c p r oc e dur e s S c hol a r s a t t e m pt i ng t o e va l ua t e de m oc r a t i c or de m oc r a t i z i ng na t i ons ha ve t ypi c a l l y r e s ponde d t o t he va r i e d f o r m s of m ode r n de m oc r a c i e s i n one of t w o w a ys : by ut i l i z i ng m i ni m a l i s t de f i ni t i ons of de m oc r a c y t ha t c a n be br oa dl y a ppl i e d or by c r e a t i ng r a nks o r c a t e gor i e s t ha t qua l i f y t he ki nd of de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt a dopt e d by di f f e r e nt na t i o ns ( O D onne l l 2001 8 9 ) A t t e m pt s a t

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40 c r e a t i ng a m or e c onc r e t e de f i ni t i on of de m oc r a c y a r e of t e n c r i t i c i z e d a s s uc h c l a s s i f i c a t i ons us ua l l y pr ove t o be t oo r e s t r i c t i ve c a us i ng m a ny de m oc r a t i c na t i ons t ha t do not f i t t he r i gi d de f i ni t i on t o be c ons i de r e d unde m oc r a t i c A t t he s a m e t i m e m or e a bs t r a c t c onc e pt i ons of de m oc r a c y a r e vi e w e d a s b e i ng s o va gue a s t o l a c k a ny t he or e t i c a l m e a ni ng, w hi l e qua l i f i e d de f i ni t i ons i gnor e t he m a ny c om m ona l i t i e s be t w e e n de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt s ( C ol l i e r a nd L e vi t s ky 1997 432 ) R e c e nt t r e nds i n de m oc r a t i z a t i on t he or y, how e ve r ha ve a t t e m pt e d t o a ddr e s s t he c ont e s t e d m e a ni ngs o f de m oc r a c y. W hi l e i t i s c l e a r t ha t m ode r n de m oc r a c i e s va r y i n t e r m s of f o r m a nd e f f e c t i ve ne s s t he ne e d f or a c om m on c onc e pt ua l f r a m e w or k i s vi t a l t o t he s t udy a nd e va l ua t i on of de m oc r a c i e s S c hol a r s s uc h a s O D onne l l S c hm i t t e r L i nz a nd S t e pa n ha ve s o ught t o de m ons t r a t e t ha t w hi l e de m oc r a c i e s do i nde e d c om e i n m a ny f or m s t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of a s i ngl e m ode l t ha t de m oc r a c i e s c a n be j udge d a ga i ns t i s pos s i bl e I n c r e a t i ng s uc h a de f i ni t i on t he s e s c hol a r s ha ve m ove d be yond va gue r e qui r e m e nt s s uc h a s t h e pr e s e nc e of e l e c t i ons a nd i ns t e a d e m pha s i z e d c om m on pr oc e dur e s a nd pr i nc i pl e s t ha t a r e s ha r e d by a l l de m oc r a c i e s C ol l i e r a nd L e vi t s ky e xpl a i n t ha t m a ny s c hol a r s de f i ne a s t a t e a s a de m oc r a c y ba s e d on pol i c i e s i ni t i a t e d by t he r e gi m e i n pow e r T hi s l o gi c i s e r r one ous t he y a r gue a s pol i c i e s c a n c ha nge dr a s t i c a l l y ove r t i m e a nd t he ove r a l l e f f e c t i ve ne s s of de m oc r a t i c pol i c i e s a r e not a l w a ys e a s y t o a s c e r t a i n. C ol l i e r a nd L e vi t s ky a r e pa r t of a gr ow i ng num be r of s c hol a r s w ho a dva nc e a pr oc e d ur a l de f i ni t i on of de m oc r a c y, t ha t l ooks a t t he pr e s e nc e or a bs e nc e of c e r t a i n ke y p r a c t i c e s a s a m e a ns of e va l ua t i ng de m oc r a t i c pe r f or m a nc e ( 1997, 437 439) P r oc e dur a l de f i ni t i ons o f de m oc r a c y a r e of t e n m i ni m a l i s t m a ki ng us e of t he f e w e s t num be r of a t t r i but e s ne c e s s a r y f or a vi a bl e de m oc r a c y. I n t hi s w a y how e ve r c om m ona l i t i e s a m ong di ve r s e de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s a r e

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41 e m pha s i z e d a nd us e d t o c ons t r uc t a m or e s t a nda r di z e d m ode l w i t h w hi c h t o e va l ua t e de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n c a s e s t udi e s unde r obs e r va t i on. T he qua l i t i e s a nd pr oc e s s e s t ha t m a ny pr om i ne nt s c hol a r s i nc l ude i n t he i r r e qui r e m e nt s f or a de m oc r a c y i nc l ude : t he a c hi e ve m e nt of pow e r by pol i t i c a l e l i t e s t hr ough c om pe t i t i ve e l e c t i ons t ha t a r e f r e e a nd f a i r uni ve r s a l or ne a r uni ve r s a l a dul t s uf f r a ge l e ga l pr ot e c t i on o f c i vi l r i ght s a nd l i be r t i e s i nc l udi ng s om e de gr e e of pr ot e c t i on f or m i nor i t i e s a nd t he a bi l i t y of t he e l e c t e d gove r nm e nt t o e xe r c i s e l e gi t i m a t e pow e r ove r t e r r i t or y of t he s t a t e ( S c hm i t t e r a nd K a r l 1991, L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1996, C ol l i e r a nd L e vi t s ky 1997) I n s e e ki ng t o e s t a bl i s h a m i ni m um s e t o f qua l i t i e s f or w hi c h a s t a t e c a n be c ons i de r e d a de m oc r a c y, pr oc e dur a l i s t s a c know l e d ge t ha t de m oc r a t i c gove r n m e nt s t a ke on m a ny f o r m s w i t h ve r y di f f e r e nt i ns t i t ut i ona l c onf i gur a t i ons a nd de gr e e s of e f f e c t i ve ne s s T he r e f o r e p r oc e dur a l s c hol a r s a l s o m a ke us e of a s c a l e of de m oc r a t i c pe r f or m a nc e ba s e d on a de ve l opm e nt a l t i m e l i ne T hi s f oc us on de gr e e s of de m oc r a c y a nd t he i m por t a nc e of t e m por a l pr oc e s s e s i n qua l i f yi ng w ha t ki nd o f de m oc r a c y a na t i on i s h a s l e d t o t he a dopt i on of t w o ke y t e r m s i n de m oc r a t i z a t i on l i t e r a t ur e t ha t m us t a l s o be c l e a r l y de f i ne d. I n a n a t t e m pt t o l oc a t e de m oc r a t i z i ng c ount r i e s on a t e m por a l s c a l e pr oc e dur a l s c hol a r s of t e n c l a s s i f y na t i ons a s t r a ns i t i oni ng or c ons ol i da t e d d e m oc r a c i e s A de m oc r a t i z i ng na t i on i s c ons i de r e d c ons ol i da t e d w he n t he r e qui r e m e nt s m e nt i one d a bove ha ve be c om e f ul l y i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d. M os t s c hol a r s a gr e e t ha t a de m oc r a c y be c om e s c ons ol i da t e d w he n ba s i c de m oc r a t i c nor m s a nd p r oc e dur e s a r e a gr e e d upon by pol i t i c a l e l i t e s a nd t he publ i c a t l a r ge a nd s uc h pr oc e dur e s a r e s e e n a s t he m os t l e gi t i m a t e a nd e f f e c t i ve m e a ns of d i s put e s e t t l e m e nt ( L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1996 5 7) I n or de r f o r a de m oc r a c y t o be c om e c ons ol i da t e d, how e ve r a s t a t e m us t f i r s t go t hr ough a

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42 pe r i od of t r a ns i t i on. D e m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on i s o f t e n de f i ne d by s c hol a r s a s t he pe r i od o f t i m e be t w e e n t he t e r m i na t i on of a n a ut ho r i t a r i a n g ove r nm e nt a nd t he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of a de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e T he gr ow i ng num be r of d e m oc r a t i z i ng na t i ons ove r t he pa s t t w o de c a de s ha s l e d t o a he i ght e ne d f oc us on p r oc e s s e s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on a m ong pol i t i c a l s c i e nt i s t s w hos e s c hol a r s hi p ha s gr e a t l y c ont r i but e d t o our u nde r s t a ndi ng of t he s e va r i e d, c ha ot i c a nd c r uc i a l pe r i ods i n a na t i o n s hi s t or y. D e m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons a r e us ua l l y c ha r a c t e r i z e d by di s a gr e e m e nt s be t w e e n e l i t e s ove r t he c onf i gu r a t i on o f de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons s t r uggl e s w i t h a ut hor i t a r i a n l e ga c i e s a nd m a s s i ve s t a t e a nd na t i on bui l di ng e nde a vor s T r a ns i t i ons t o de m oc r a c y a r e not un i f or m a nd t he s pe c i f i c na t ur e of t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s c oupl e d w i t h t he u ni que hi s t or i c a l c ondi t i ons of a s t a t e ha ve a pr of ound i m pa c t on ul t i m a t e f or m of a na t i o n s de m oc r a c y ( M ohone y a nd S nyde r 1999, 5 6 ) A s t hi s c ha pt e r de m ons t r a t e s c e r t a i n s oc i a l pol i t i c a l a nd e c onom i c c ondi t i ons c a n a i d i n de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on, w h i l e t he de s i gn of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a nd pr oc e dur e s c a n e xpe di t e or hi nde r t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s I n d i a an d P ak i s t an A t I n d e p e n d e n c e S t udi e s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on a s s e r t t ha t pr e e x i s t i ng c ondi t i ons a nd t he i ns t i t ut i ona l de s i gn a dopt e d by e l i t e s gr e a t l y a f f e c t t he l i ke l i hoo d of de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. F a c t or s s uc h a s pr e e xi s t i ng r e gi m e t ype e t hni c pl ur a l i s m e c onom i c c ondi t i ons a nd c ul t ur a l va l ue s a s w e l l a s t he w a ys i n w hi c h t r a ns i t i oni ng e l i t e s a ddr e s s t he s e i s s ue s ha ve a l l be e n put f or w a r d a s e xpl a na t or y va r i a bl e s f o r t h e s uc c e s s or f a i l ur e of va r i ous de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s W hi l e i t i s t r ue t ha t a va r i e t y of f o r c e s a nd c ondi t i ons a f f e c t

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43 t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s s om e va r i a bl e s a r e c l e a r l y m o r e i nf l ue nt i a l t ha n ot he r s I n o r de r t o e xpl i c a t e t he m or e de f i ni ng i n f l ue nc e s on de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on, L i nz a nd S t e pa n of f e r a us e f ul m e t hod o f a na l ys i s w i t h t he i r f i ve a r e na s m ode l A c c or di ng t o L i nz a nd S t e pa n, f i ve m ut ua l l y r e i nf or c i ng c ondi t i ons m us t be m e t f o r a de m oc r a c y t o be c om e f ul l y c ons ol i da t e d; a l i ve l y c i vi l s oc i e t y, a n a ut ono m ous pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y, r ul e of l a w a us a bl e bur e a uc r a t i c a ppa r a t us a nd a n i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d e c onom i c s oc i e t y t ha t m e di a t e s be t w e e n t he gove r nm e nt a nd t he e c onom y ( 1996 7 11) T he s e f i ve f a c t o r s f i gur e pr om i ne nt l y i n t he or i e s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on, a nd a s ubs t a nt i a l a m ount of l i t e r a t ur e ha s be e n pr oduc e d on t he i m por t a nc e o f e a c h a r e na i n a c hi e vi ng de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. T hi s c ha pt e r ut i l i z e s L i nz a nd S t e pa n s f i ve a r e na s m ode l a s a n or ga ni z a t i ona l s c he m a f or e va l ua t i ng p r os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i n I nd i a a nd P a ki s t a n du r i ng t he t r a ns i t i on pe r i od. T he s t a t e of t he po l i t i c a l c i vi l a nd e c onom i c s oc i e t i e s a s w e l l a s r ul e of l a w a nd t h e s t a t e a ppa r a t us i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n a t t he t i m e of i nde pe nde nc e w i l l be c om pa r e d a nd a na l yz e d a c c or di ng t o r e l e va nt t he or i e s a nd s t udi e s i n e a c h a r e na P ol i t i c al S oc i e t y L i nz a nd S t e pa n de f i ne pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y a s t he a r e na i n w hi c h t he pol i t y s p e c i f i c a l l y a r r a nge s i t s e l f t o c ont e s t t he l e gi t i m a t e r i ght t o e xe r c i s e c ont r ol ove r publ i c pow e r a nd t he s t a t e a ppa r a t us ( 1996 8 ) P o l i t i c a l s oc i e t y, t he r e f o r e c om p r i s e s a r a nge of i ns t i t ut i ons nor m s a nd pr oc e dur e s s uc h a s e l e c t or a l s ys t e m s pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s l e gi s l a t ur e s a nd di vi s i ons of pow e r a m ong gove r n m e nt a l br a nc he s T he de s i gn of t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons a nd t he r ul e s t ha t m a i nt a i n t he m c om pr i s e a c r uc i a l c om pone nt of e ve r y

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44 de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s T he c on f i gur a t i on o f e l e c t or a l s ys t e m s a nd gove r nm e nt a l de s i gn a r e t he s ubj e c t of c ons i de r a bl e s c hol a r l y f oc us by pol i t i c a l s c i e nt i s t s w ho o f f e r a r a nge of t he o r i e s a s t o w ha t f or m pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y s houl d t a ke t o be s t a c hi e ve de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. S t udi e s of pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y i n de m oc r a t i z i ng s t a t e s c a n ge ne r a l l y be di vi de d i nt o t w o a ppr oa c he s T he m or e c om m onl y us e d s t r uc t u r a l i s t pa r a di gm s e e ks t o e xpl a i n r e gi m e c ha nge a s a r e s ul t o f t he de s i gn of t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e a nd i ns t i t ut i ons w hi c h c ons t r a i n t he a c t i ons of pow e r hol de r s a nd e nge nde r c e r t a i n r e a c t i ons by t he publ i c ( B e r m e o 1990, 360 61) T he s t r uc t ur a l i s t a ppr oa c h i s c ha l l e nge d by s c hol a r s w ho f oc us on i ndi vi dua l e l i t e s a nd e l i t e de c i s i on m a ki ng pr oc e s s e s dur i ng de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons T he e l i t e c e nt e r e d o r vol unt a r i s t a pp r oa c h vi e w s i ndi vi dua l e l i t e s a s t he m os t i m por t a nt a c t or s dur i ng a t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s a nd a na l yz e s ho w ba r ga i ni ng, pa c t s a nd i n f i ght i ng a m ong e l i t e s a f f e c t t he de s i gn of t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e ( M ohone y a nd S nyde r 1999 4) O D onne l l a nd S c hm i t t e r e xp l a i n t ha t a f oc us on e l i t e be ha vi or a nd t a c t i c s dur i ng de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons i s l ogi c a l due t o t he hi gh de gr e e of s t r uc t u r a l i ns t a bi l i t y a nd i ns t i t ut i ona l w e a kne s s e xpe r i e nc e d dur i ng de m oc r a t i z a t i on. I n t he a bs e nc e of w e l l e s t a bl i s he d pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a nd e l e c t or a l pr oc e dur e s ke y i ndi vi dua l s i n oppos i t i on gr oups a nd i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt s c a n w i e l d pol i t i c a l pow e r w i t h ve r y f e w s ys t e m i c c ons t r a i ns t o a l t e r t he i r de c i s i on m a ki ng. T he m ot i va t i ons of e l i t e s w i t hi n na s c e nt pol i t i c a l s oc i e t i e s a nd t he t a c t i c s t he y us e t o a c hi e ve t he i r goa l s be c om e t he ke y f a c t or s i n t he s uc c e s s or f a i l u r e of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons ( O D onne l l a nd S c hm i t t e r 1986, 18 19 ) M a ny e l i t e c e nt r i c de m oc r a t i z a t i on s t udi e s f oc us o n t he dyna m i c s of e l i t e i nt e r a c t i ons S c hol a r s s uc h a s H i g e l y a nd B ur t on a s s e r t t ha t t he de gr e e of uni t y a m ong e l i t e s i s t he

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45 de c i di ng f a c t or i n a c hi e vi ng de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. T he y a r gue t ha t t he t a s k of bui l di ng a na t i on s t a t e i s a n i nhe r e nt l y c onf l i c t p r o ne pr oc e s s i nvol vi ng c om pe t i t i ons f or r i ght s a nd po w e r a m ong e l i t e s di vi de d by pol i t i c a l e t hni c a nd c l a s s l i ne s T he a bi l i t y of a t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e t o c r e a t e uni t y a m ong c om pe t i ng e l i t e s i s vi e w e d a s t he ke y t o e s t a bl i s hi ng a n a ut onom ous a nd e f f e c t i ve pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y. S t udi e s ha ve s how n t ha t w i de s p r e a d e l i t e uni t y i s m os t o f t e n ga i ne d w he n p ol i t i c a l l e a de r s hi p i s a t t a i ne d by s oc i a l m ove m e nt s t ha t ha ve a c hi e ve d m a s s a ppe a l or by oppos i t i on pa r t i e s unde r t he f or m e r r e gi m e ( H i ge l y a nd B ur t on 1989 19 20) W hi l e t he he i ght e ne d i nf l ue nc e of i nd i vi du a l e l i t e s w i t hi n a t r a ns i t i on c ont e xt c a nnot be ove r l ooke d, t he i m po r t a nc e of s ys t e m i c f a c t or s f or pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on s t i l l r e m a i ns C r i t i c s of t he vol un t a r i s t a ppr oa c h e xpl a i n t ha t e l i t e c e nt e r e d a na l ys e s w hi c h pl a c e hum a n a ge nc y a s t he ke y e x pl a na t or y va r i a bl e i n r e gi m e c ha nge c a nnot yi e l d m ode l s w i t h a ny pr e di c t i ve pow e r M a ny s c hol a r s a r gue t ha t a l t hough e l i t e de c i s i on m a ki ng a f f e c t s t he r ou t e t a ke n by a s t a t e s t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s t he ul t i m a t e a r t i c ul a t i on of t he s e e l i t e s de c i s i ons a nd i nf l ue nc e w i l l t a ke t he f o r m o f t he s pe c i f i c de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a nd pr a c t i c e s t he y de s i gn ( B e r m e o 1990, 362 ) O t he r s c hol a r s a r gue t ha t de s pi t e t he e l e va t e d i m por t a nc e of pol i t i c a l e l i t e s i n de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons t he i r m ot i ve s a nd t a c t i c s a r e of t e n t he r e s ul t o f pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng t ha t oc c ur r e d du r i ng t he pr i or r e gi m e m e a ni ng t ha t e l i t e de c i s i on m a ki ng i s s t i l l s ubj e c t t o s ys t e m i c c ons t r a i nt s ( M ohone y a nd S nyde r 1999 25 ) C r i t i c s of e l i t e ba s e d e xpl a na t i ons f o r t r a ns i t i ons o ut c om e s of t e n t ur n t o a na l ys i s of t he i ns t i t ut i ona l de s i gn a dopt e d by de m oc r a t i z i n g s t a t e s C a s e s t udi e s f r om a r ound t he w or l d ha ve r e ve a l e d t ha t t he s pe c i f i c c onf i gu r a t i on of t he e l e c t or a l s ys t e m a nd

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46 gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e c a n ha ve pr e di c t a bl e e f f e c t s on t he f o r m a t i on o f pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s de m oc r a t i c va l ue s a m ong t he publ i c a nd t he l i ke l i hood of c ons ol i da t i on. M uc h of t he i ns t i t ut i ona l a na l ys i s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons c e nt e r s on t he de s i gn of e l e c t or a l s ys t e m s a nd t he i r e f f e c t s on t he f or m a t i on of pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a n d s ys t e m s of pa r t y c om pe t i t i on I n ge ne r a l i t i s a gr e e d upon t ha t pr e s i de nt i a l s ys t e m s w hi c h of t e n ut i l i z e s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t s f or t he e l e c t i on of l e gi s l a t or s t e nd t o f os t e r s t a bl e dua l pa r t y s ys t e m s t ha t a r e or i e nt e d a l ong a l e f t r i ght di vi de ( N e t o a nd C ox 19 97, 150 ) P a r l i a m e nt a r y de m oc r a c i e s w hi c h t ypi c a l l y a s s i gn l e gi s l a t i ve s e a t s on t he ba s i s of p r opor t i ona l r e pr e s e nt a t i on s ys t e m s w i l l m os t l i ke l y c r e a t e m ul t i pl e s m a l l e r p a r t i e s ( K a t z 1980, 116 ) W hi l e s uc h ge ne r a l i t i e s a r e a gr e e d upon by a nd l a r ge by de m o c r a t i z a t i on s c hol a r s t he r e e xi s t s ve r y l i t t l e c ons e ns us a s t o w hi c h e l e c t or a l s ys t e m i s be s t s ui t e d f or a c hi e vi ng de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. P r opone nt s of s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t e l e c t or a l s ys t e m s a nd pr e s i de nt i a l gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s a r gu e t ha t t he gr e a t e r a ut ono m y of t he e xe c ut i ve br a nc h a nd f e w e r pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s e ns ur e s a m or e e f f e c t i ve gove r n m e nt T he l i m i t e d i nt e r pa r t y c om pe t i t i on a nd t he r e l a t i ve e a s e w i t h w hi c h pr e s i de nt i a l gove r nm e nt s c a n i ni t i a t e pol i c i e s a r e s e e n a s vi t a l f or e s t a bl i s hi ng publ i c opt i m i s m i n a ne w de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt ( D i a m ond 1990, 54 ) M os t s c hol a r s how e ve r be l i e ve t ha t pr e s i de nt i a l de m oc r a c i e s a nd s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t s ys t e m s a r e m or e pr obl e m a t i c t ha n be ne f i c i a l t o de m oc r a t i z i ng s t a t e s J ua n L i nz pe r ha ps one of t he m os t voc a l c r i t i c s of pr e s i de nt i a l s ys t e m s a r gue s t ha t t he di vi s i on of pow e r s i nhe r e nt i n m os t pr e s i de nt i a l s y s t e m s l e a ds t o de a dl oc k a nd i ne f f i c i e nc y i n t he l i ke l y c a s e t ha t t he e xe c ut i ve a n d l e gi s l a t i ve br a nc he s a r e c ont r ol l e d by di f f e r e nt pa r t i e s L i nz a l s o c l a i m s t ha t pr e s i de nt i a l gove r nm e nt s a r e l e s s de m oc r a t i c a nd

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47 a c c ount a bl e t ha n pa r l i a m e nt a r y s ys t e m s w hi c h a r e a bl e t o c a l l vot e s of no c onf i de nc e a nd di s s ol ve c oa l i t i on gove r nm e nt s ( 1990 68 69) M a ny ot he r s c hol a r s m i r r or L i nz s c onc e r n t ha t t he l e s s e ne d a c c ount a bi l i t y of pr e s i de nt i a l s ys t e m s c a n be di s a s t r ous f or t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s E m pow e r e d e xe c ut i ve b r a nc he s i n pos t a ut hor i t a r i a n s t a t e s c a n s om e t i m e s ope n a ba c k door t o t he r e t ur n o f a n un de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e L i ke w i s e s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t s ys t e m s a r e a l s o e s pe c i a l l y s us c e p t i bl e t o a ppr op r i a t i on by e l e m e nt s of pr i or r e gi m e s a s r ul i ng e l i t e s f r om t he f or m e r r e gi m e ha ve t he na m e r e c ogni t i on a nd m obi l i z a t i on c a pa c i t i e s ne e de d t o w i n i n t he m o r e pe r s ona l i s t i c pr e s i de nt i a l s ys t e m s ( D a w i s ha a nd D e e t s 693 694, 2006 ) P r opone nt s o f pr e s i de nt i a l s ys t e m s c l a i m t ha t t he l a r ge r num be r of pa r t i e s i n pa r l i a m e nt a r y de m oc r a c i e s i nc r e a s e s pr e vi ous l y e xi s t i ng di vi s i ons a nd s pa w ns di vi s i ve ne s s a m ong pol i t i c a l e l i t e s ( M a i nw a r i ng a nd S huga r t 19 97, 395) B ut m a ny s c hol a r s c ount e r w i t h c l a i m s t ha t pr opor t i ona l r e pr e s e nt a t i on s ys t e m s s ha pe t he na t ur e of pa r t y c om pe t i t i on i n a w a y t ha t m a ke s c ons ol i da t i on m or e l i ke l y I t i s a r gue d t ha t be c a us e pr opor t i ona l r e pr e s e nt a t i on s y s t e m s ge ne r a t e m or e pa r t i e s t h i s gr a nt s de m oc r a t i z i ng gove r nm e nt s gr e a t e r l e gi t i m a c y by e ns ur i ng t ha t m or e di ve r s e i nt e r e s t s w i t hi n t he s t a t e a r e r e pr e s e nt e d ( D a w i s ha a nd D e e t s 696, 2006) P r opo r t i ona l r e pr e s e nt a t i on i s a l s o s a i d t o l i m i t t e ns i ons be t w e e n gr oups w i t hi n t he s t a t e a nd r e duc e c onf l i c t by g r a nt i ng t r a di t i ona l l y di s e nf r a nc hi s e d gr oups t he m e a ns of r e pr e s e nt i ng t he i r i nt e r e s t s ( D i a m ond 1990, 55 56) D e s pi t e t he a c a de m i c ba c k a nd f or t h be t w e e n pr op one nt s of di f f e r e nt e l e c t or a l a nd i ns t i t ut i ona l s ys t e m s m os t s c hol a r s a gr e e t ha t t he r e e xi s t s gr e a t va r i a t i on a m ong pr e s i de nt i a l a nd pa r l i a m e nt a r y de m oc r a c i e s a nd t h a t be ne f i c i a l i ns t i t ut i ona l de s i gns c a n a m e l i or a t e t he pr obl e m s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h e i t he r s ys t e m ( M a i nw a r i ng a nd S huga r t 1997

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48 52 53) G r ow i ng a t t e nt i on i s a l s o be i ng pa i d t o a n um be r of c a s e s t ha t i l l us t r a t e a hybr i d f or m o f de m oc r a c y t ha t c om bi ne s e l e m e nt s of p r op or t i ona l r e p r e s e nt a t i on a nd s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t s I n pa r t i c ul a r s e ve r a l s t a t e s i n t h e A s i a P a c i f i c r e gi on ha ve de ve l ope d w ha t R e i l l y r e f e r s t o a s m i xe d m e m be r m a j or i t a r i a n e l e c t or a l s ys t e m s ( 2007, 1354) I n m i xe d m e m be r m a j or i t a r i a n s ys t e m s s om e s e a t s a r e a s s i gne d by l oc a l s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t s but a c e r t a i n num be r of s e a t s a r e ba s e d on t he ove r a l l pr opor t i on of vot e s f o r di f f e r e nt pa r t i e s T hi s s ys t e m ha s ha d t he e f f e c t o f r e duc i ng t he ove r a l l num be r of pa r t i e s a nd c r e a t i ng m or e s t a bl e na t i ona l l y or i e nt e d pa r t i e s t he r e by ove r c om i ng a t e nde nc y t ow a r d e t hni c r e gi ona l a nd s e c e s s i oni s t pa r t i e s t ha t e xi s t e d be f or e e l e c t or a l r e f or m s w he r e e na c t e d ( R e i l l y, 1354 1360 2007 ) P ol i t i c al S oc i e t y i n I n d i a an d P ak i s t a n T he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt s of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n ha d s i m i l a r ba c kgr ounds a s pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a nd na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s dur i ng t he c ol oni a l e r a T he gove r nm e nt s f or m e d by t he I N C a nd M us l i m L e a gue w e r e a l s o l e d by e l i t e s w ho w e r e i nf l ue nc e d a nd de vot e d t o w e s t e r n pol i t i c a l t he or i e s a nd bot h na t i ons be ga n t he t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s e s w i t h t he goa l of e s t a bl i s hi ng pa r l i a m e nt a r y de m oc r a c i e s ba s e d on B r i t a i n s W e s t m i ns t e r m ode l D e s pi t e t he s e c o m m ona l i t i e s how e ve r t he pol i t i c a l s oc i e t i e s of ne w l y i nde pe nde nt I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n di f f e r e d gr e a t l y i n t he i r c ha r a c t e r c a pa c i t y, a nd s t r uc t ur e T he I N C w a s de vot e d t o de m oc r a t i c i de a l s f r om i t s ve r y i nc e pt i ons E ve n be f or e t he or ga ni z a t i on be c a m e a p ol i t i c a l pa r t y i t s pos i t i ons w e r e a s s i gne d t hr ough e l e c t i ons a m ong i t m e m be r s hi p a nd t he o r ga ni z a t i ona l s t r uc t ur e w a s ba s e d on a l e gi s l a t i ve a s s e m bl y. I de ol ogi c a l di f f e r e nc e s be t w e e n m e m be r s a nd f a c t i ons w i t hi n C ongr e s s w e r e

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49 a c t i ve l y e nc our a ge d by t he pa r t y s l e a de r s hi p, w ho va l ue d de l i be r a t i ve p r oc e s s e s of pol i c y f or m a t i on ( G ow da a nd S r i dha r a n 2007, 9 1 0) I n c ont r a s t t he M us l i m L e a gue l e a de r s hi p w a s pr i m a r i l y m a de up of l a ndl or ds a nd m e m be r s of t he a r i s t oc r a c y, a nd de c i s i on m a ki ng a nd a ppoi nt m e nt s w e r e m a de f r o m t he t op dow n. T he e xpe r i e nc e s of t he t w o or ga ni z a t i ons i n t he e l e c t or a l a r e na a l s o di f f e r e d m a r ke dl y T he I N C m a de pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on a c r i t i c a l c om pone nt of i t s m e s s a ge w hi l e t he L e a gue s c a m pa i gns f oc us e d on t he da nge r s de m oc r a c y pos e d t o t he m i nor i t y M us l i m popul a t i on ( R obb 2002 182 83) O ve r t he de c a de s t he I N C w a s a bl e t o a c hi e ve m a s s a ppe a l t hr oughout I ndi a a nd by i nde pe nde nc e C ongr e s s ha d de ve l ope d a g r a s s r oot s f ol l ow i ng a c r os s t he s ubc ont i ne nt a s w e l l a s s i gni f i c a nt or ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y. T he M us l i m L e a gue c om pe t e d i n s e pa r a t e e l e c t or a t e s de s i gne d f or t he I s l a m i c popul a t i on, a nd t he r e f or e ne ve r ne e de d t o de ve l op a m e s s a ge or pa r t y pl a t f o r m t ha t a ppe a l e d t o ot he r c om m uni t i e s E ve n i n t he s e s e pa r a t e e l e c t or a t e s t he L e a gue c ons i s t e nt l y unde r pe r f o r m e d. T he va s t m a j or i t y of t he L e a gue s s uppor t a nd a l m os t a l l of i t s l e a de r s hi p c a m e f r om M us l i m popul a t i ons i n H i ndu m a j or i t y pr ovi nc e s I n t he pr ov i nc e s t ha t w oul d e ve nt ua l l y f o r m P a ki s t a n, t he L e a gue ha d ve r y l i t t l e publ i c s upp or t I n t he 1937 e l e c t i ons ( t he l a s t be f or e e l e c t i ons w e r e s us pe nde d a t t he out br e a k of W or l d W a r I I i n 1939) t he I N C a c hi e ve d a m a j or i t y o r f or m e d a c oa l i t i on gove r nm e nt i n ni ne of I ndi a s e l e ve n s t a t e s T he U ni oni s t pa r t y dom i na t e d P unj a b a nd B e nga l t he t w o s t a t e s t ha t w oul d f or m t he va s t m a j o r i t y o f P a ki s t a n, w i t h t he L e a gue c a pt ur i ng onl y t w o of t h e 85 M us l i m s e a t s i n t he P unj a b ( T a l bot 1980 67 68) T he L e a gue w oul d f a i r be t t e r i n t he 1946 e l e c t i ons i n t he P un j a b a nd B e nga l due t o t he r e pr e s s i on of I N C a c t i vi t i e s dur i ng W or l d W a r I I but i t ha d ne ve r

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50 c a pt ur e d m or e t ha n 5% o f t he M us l i m vot e be f o r e t hi s br e a kt hr ough ( J a f f r e l ot 2 002, 253) T he I N C w a s w e l l ve r s e d i n t he p r oc e s s e s of e l e c t or a l c om pe t i t i on a nd de m oc r a t i c gove r na nc e by i nde pe nde nc e w hi l e t he L e a gue ha d f e w e xpe r i e nc e d de m oc r a t i c pol i t i c i a ns N e w l y i nde pe nde nt I ndi a w oul d be go ve r ne d by e xpe r i e nc e d e l i t e s a nd w e l l e s t a bl i s he d pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s w hi l e t he r e w a s l i t t l e pa r t y pe ne t r a t i on o f t he s oc i a l l i f e i n P a ki s t a n, a nd t he M us l i m L e a gue ha d s i gni f i c a nt l y l e s s e xpos ur e t o de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s a nd pr oc e dur e s T hi s ga p i n pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng i s b e c a m e a ppa r e nt dur i ng t he l e ngt hy c ons t i t ut i on dr a f t i ng pr oc e s s i n P a ki s t a n, a nd t he i ne f f i c i e nt gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e de s i gne d by t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y. D ue t o a l a c k o f pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng a nd pa r t y c a pa c i t y, t he pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y of ne w l y i nde pe nde nt P a ki s t a n w a s unpr e pa r e d f o r t h e c ha l l e nge s of de s i gni ng a gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e dr a f t i ng a c ons t i t ut i on, a nd i ns t i l l i ng de m oc r a t i c nor m s ne c e s s a r y f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. T he L e a gue s be ha vi or e vi nc e d t he s a m e m i s t r us t of de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s t ha t c ha r a c t e r i z e d t he pa r t y s pr e i nde pe nde nc e pl a t f or m l e a di ng t o a hos t of unde m oc r a t i c be ha vi or a nd w i de s pr e a d c or r upt i on T he l a c k of e xpe r i e n c e d pol i t i c i a ns i n t he M us l i m L e a gue a l s o l e d t o a n i ne f f i c i e nt de s i gn f o r t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt a nd a p r ot r a c t e d c ons t i t ut i on dr a f t i ng pr oc e s s t ha t ul t i m a t e l y c ul m i na t e d i n a m i l i t a r y c oup s hor t l y a f t e r t he c ons t i t ut i on w a s f i n a l l y a dopt e d. T he pol i t i c a l e l i t e s o f I ndi a how e ve r w e r e a bl e t o u t i l i z e de c a de s of e xp e r i e nc e i n r e pr e s e nt a t i ve i ns t i t ut i ons a nd e l e c t or a l c om pe t i t i on t o e xpe di e nt l y c r a f t a pa r l i a m e nt a r y de m oc r a c y a nd f e de r a l gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e T hi s p r oc e s s w a s done t r a ns pa r e nt l y, f a i r l y, a nd w i t h a hi gh de gr e e of m i nor i t y r e p r e s e nt a t i on.

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51 C i vi l S oc i e t y C i vi l s oc i e t y c a n be be s t de s c r i be d a s t he r e a l m of vol unt a r y a s s oc i a t i on w i t hi n a pol i t y. C i vi l s oc i e t y i s c om pos e d o f va r i ous s e l f or ga ni z i ng gr oups m ove m e nt s a nd i ndi vi dua l s r e l a t i v e l y a ut onom ous f r om t he s t a t e t ha t a t t e m pt t o a r t i c ul a t e va l ue s c r e a t e a s s oc i a t i on s a nd a dva nc e t he i r i nt e r e s t s ( L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1998, 7) E xa m pl e s o f s uc h gr oups i nc l ude r e l i gi ous o r de r s i nt e l l e c t ua l or ga ni z a t i ons t r a de uni ons t he pr e s s w om e n s r i g ht s or ga ni z a t i ons a nd ot he r g r oups i n w hi c h m e m be r s hi p i s vol unt a r y W ha t di s t i ngui s he s c i vi l s oc i e t y f r om pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y i s t ha t e ve n w he n s uc h gr oups ha ve a n e xpl i c i t l y pol i t i c a l pu r pos e t he y do not t r y t o s e e k f or m a l pow e r t hr ough e l e c t or a l c om pe t i t i on ( S m i d t 1999 177) T he a r e na of c i vi l s oc i e t y, t he r e f or e i s a s or t of i nt e r m e di a r y be t w e e n t he pub l i c s phe r e of pol i t i c a l of f i c e a nd t he p r i va t e s phe r e of i ndi vi dua l l i f e S t udi e s of c i vi l s oc i e t y i n de m oc r a t i c t he or y c a n t r a c e t he i r or i gi ns t o A l e xi s de T oc que vi l l e w ho a r gue d t ha t vol unt a r y a s s oc i a t i on s a ut onom ous f r om t he s t a t e w e r e i ns t r um e nt a l i n c r e a t i ng a n i nf o r m e d a n d pol i t i c a l l y a c t i ve c i t i z e nr y a s w e l l a s i ns t i l l i ng de m oc r a t i c no r m s a nd va l ue s a m ong t he vot i ng popul a t i on ( F ol e y a nd E dw a r ds 1996, 39) E a r l y l i be r a l t he or i s t s e xpa ndi ng on T o c que vi l l e s a na l ys i s e nvi s i one d de m oc r a t i c c i vi l s oc i e t i e s a s a c ount e r w e i ght t o t he pow e r of t he s t a t e w or ki ng t o e m pow e r c i t i z e ns a ga i ns t t he gove r nm e nt a nd ke e pi ng t he s t a t e a c c ount a bl e f or i t s a c t i ons M or e r e c e nt l y c i vi l s oc i e t y ha s be e n t he s ubj e c t of i nc r e a s i ng s c hol a r l y f oc us a s s t udi e s of t hi r d w a ve t r a ns i t i ons ha ve de m ons t r a t e d t he pow e r o f c i vi l s oc i e t y t o m obi l i z e oppos i t i on t o a ut hor i t a r i a n r e gi m e s ( D i a m ond 1994, 8) T he hi gh l y vi s i b l e r ol e

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52 of c i vi l s oc i e t y g r oups i n t he di s m a nt l i ng o f c om m uni s t gove r nm e nt s i n E a s t e r n E u r ope a nd m i l i t a r y di c t a t or s hi ps i n L a t i n A m e r i c a ha s m a de t hi s a r e na a f e r t i l e b r e e di ng gr ound f or c onf l i c t i ng t he or i e s o f how c i vi l s oc i e t y c a n a i d de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. A l t hough a gr e a t de a l of f oc us ha s be e n gi ve n t o t h e a bi l i t y of c i vi l s oc i e t y t o put pr e s s ur e on a ut hor i t a r i a n r e gi m e s t o de m oc r a t i z e pol i t i c a l s c i e nt i s t s a r e i nc r e a s i ngl y a r gui ng t ha t c i vi l s oc i e t y i s e s s e nt i a l t o t he c ons ol i da t i on a nd m a i nt e na nc e of de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s M a ny m ode r n da y t he o r i s t s ha ve c ont i nu e d t he T oc que vi l l i a n i nt e r pr e t a t i on of c i vi l s oc i e t y by c l a i m i ng t ha t pa r t i c i pa t i on i n s uc h a s s oc i a t i on s a l l ow s f or t he pr om ul ga t i on of de m oc r a t i c va l ue s a m ong t he pop ul a t i on. T hi s not i on be c om e s i nc r e a s i ngl y i m por t a nt i n t he c ont e xt of t r a ns i t i ons f r om a ut ho r i t a r i a ni s m w he r e t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of a gr e e d upon de m oc r a t i c nor m s i s e s s e nt i a l f or t he c ons ol i da t i on of de m oc r a c y ( S m i dt 1999, 78) T he o r ga ni z a t i ona l s t r uc t ur e s of vo l unt a r y a s s oc i a t i ons a r e of t e n de m oc r a t i c i n na t ur e gr a nt i ng c i t i z e ns e xpos ur e t o ba s i c de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s a nd e xpe r i e nc e w i t h de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s T hi s qua l i t y of c i vi l s oc i e t y i s s a i d t o not onl y a i d i n t he e nt r e nc hm e nt of de m oc r a t i c va l ue s a m on g t he popul a t i on b ut a l s o s e r ve a s a t r a i ni ng gr ound f o r pot e nt i a l pol i t i c i a ns t he r e f or e a i di ng i n t he c r e a t i on of e xpe r i e nc e d a nd di s c i pl i ne d e l i t e s ( D i a m ond 1994 8 9) A s t r ong c i vi l t r a di t i on i s a l s o c r uc i a l t o t he pr e ve nt i on of c or r upt i on a nd a bus e s of pow e r dur i ng t r a ns i t i on pe r i ods O ne of t he gr e a t e s t c a us e s of s t a l l e d t r a ns i t i ons or a ut hor i t a r i a n ba c ks l i di ng i s c or r upt i on or m i s m a na ge m e nt on t he pa r t of po l i t i c a l e l i t e s N a s c e nt de m oc r a c i e s how e ve r a r e e s pe c i a l l y s us c e pt i bl e t o s uc h c or r upt i on a s de m oc r a t i z i n g s t a t e s of t e n l a c k t he bur e a uc r a t i c c a pa c i t y a nd l e ga l s t r uc t ur e s t o di s c our a ge or puni s h vi ol a t i ons of pow e r on t he pa r t o f e l i t e s G r oups w i t h i n c i vi l s oc i e t y, e s pe c i a l l y i f t he y ha ve pl a ye d a r ol e i n t he

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53 l i be r a l i z a t i on of t he pr e e xi s t i ng r e gi m e c a n s e r ve t o m oni t or t he c om m i t m e nt s of t he ne w de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt e ns ur i ng t r a ns pa r e nc y a nd a c c ount a bi l i t y a s w e l l a s i nc r e a s i ng publ i c f a i t h i n t he ne w r e gi m e ( B e r nha r d 1993, 312 13) C i vi l s oc i e t y i s a l s o s a i d t o s t i m ul a t e pol i t i c a l pa r t i c i pa t i on a nd c oope r a t i on a m ong di s pa r a t e e l e m e nt s of s oc i e t y, w hi c h he l ps a m e l i or a t e s om e o f t he p r obl e m s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h a l a c k of e s t a bl i s he d pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a nd unc e r t a i nt y ove r e l e c t or a l pr oc e dur e s ( D i a m ond 1994, 7) I n a ddi t i on t o f os t e r i ng a s m oot h a nd e f f i c i e nt t r a n s i t i on pr oc e s s a l i ve l y c i vi l s oc i e t y he l ps pr e s e r ve a de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e onc e c ons ol i da t e d. M a ny s c hol a r s a r gue t ha t i n a ddi t i on t o pr ovi di ng c ons i s t e nt l i m i t a t i ons on s t a t e pow e r a nd l e gi t i m a t i z a t i on of publ i c c ont r ol o f t he pol i t i c a l p r oc e s s c i vi l s oc i e t y he l ps l i m i t or s ol ve a hos t of s oc i a l pr obl e m s t ha t c a n pr ove t hr e a t e ni ng t o de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s G r oups i n c i vi l s oc i e t y a r e a bl e t o or ga ni z e a nd a r t i c ul a t e vi e w s a nd i n t e r e s t s out s i de t he a r e na of f or m a l pow e r w i t hi n a s t a t e I n doi ng s o, c i vi l s oc i e t y i s a bl e t o pr ovi de a ve nue s of r e p r e s e nt a t i on a nd s oc i a l a dva nc e m e nt t o t r a di t i ona l l y d i s e nf r a nc hi s e d gr oups by a l l ow i ng s uc h gr oups t o pl a c e publ i c pr e s s ur e on t he gove r nm e nt ( L e hni ng 2007, 228) T he r e pr e s e nt a t i on of a di ve r s e a r r a y of i nt e r e s t s a nd w i de ne t w o r ks of a s s oc i a t i on i n a de m oc r a t i c c i vi l s oc i e t y i s a l s o be l i e ve d t o br i dge a va r i e t y of s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l c l e a va ge s w i t hi n a s t a t e T he a r gum e nt s l i s t e d a bove p r ovi de t he ge ne r a l t he or e t i c a l unde r pi nni ngs of a ny s c hol a r l y c a s e m a de f or c i vi l s oc i e t y s i m por t a nc e i n de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on a nd c ons ol i da t i on. T he s e a r gum e nt s a r e not w i t hout t h e i r c r i t i c s a nd m uc h d i s a gr e e m e nt e xi s t s w i t hi n de m oc r a t i z a t i on l i t e r a t u r e on how t he na t ur e c onf i gur a t i on a nd qua l i t y o f c i vi c l i f e a f f e c t s t h e t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s S om e t he o r i s t s a r gue t ha t t he r ol e o f c i vi l s oc i e t y i n de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons ha s be e n ove r e m pha s i z e d i n t hi r d w a ve c a s e s t udi e s T he s e

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54 s c hol a r s c l a i m t ha t a l t hough c i vi l s oc i e t y or ga ni z a t i ons a i de d i n t he m obi l i z a t i on o f publ i c pr e s s ur e a ga i ns t non de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e n t s t he ul t i m a t e c a us e of pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on s t e m s f r om e l i t e s i n pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y. T he s e e l i t e s a l t hough f or c e d t o m a ke pa c t s w i t h r e f or m m i nde d a c t or s i n c i vi l s oc i e t y, w e r e s t i l l a bl e t o gui de a nd c ont r ol t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s a nd s e r ve d a s m uc h m or e s a l i e nt f a c t or s i n de m oc r a t i z a t i on pr oc e s s e s ( F ol e y a nd E dw a r ds 1996, 45) T he a bi l i t y o f a s s oc i a t i ona l l i f e t o s t r e ngt he n de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s by i ns t i l l i ng de m oc r a t i c va l ue s a nd a l l e vi a t i ng s oc i a l t e ns i ons i s a l s o que s t i one d by m a ny s c hol a r s T he v i e w of c i vi l o r ga ni z a t i ons a s T oc que vi l l i a n s c hool s of de m oc r a c y or t r a i ni ng gr ounds f or pol i t i c a l e l i t e s i s ba s e d on t he a s s um pt i on t ha t s uc h or ga ni z a t i ons a r e de m oc r a t i c i n na t ur e w hi c h of t e n pr ove s t o be f a l s e ( D i a m ond 1994, 15) W hi l e m i no r i t y gr oups w i t hi n a s t a t e m a y be a bl e t o m obi l i z e a ga i ns t pol i t i c a l m a r gi na l i z a t i on i n t he a r e na of c i vi l s oc i e t y, c ount e r m ove m e nt s a nd r i va l or ga ni z a t i ons c a n a nd of t e n do f or m t o c ha l l e nge t he s e popul a t i o ns a nd m a i nt a i n t he pol i t i c a l s t a t us quo ( F ol e y a nd E dw a r ds 1996, 47) I n a n e xt r e m e f or m of t hi s f a c t i ona l i s m c i vi l s oc i e t y ha s t he pot e nt i a l t o e xa c e r ba t e s oc i a l di vi s i ons a nd i ne qua l i t i e s by pr ovi di ng a n a r e na f or r i va l gr oups a nd popul a t i ons t o m obi l i z e s om e t i m e s v i ol e nt l y, a ga i ns t one a not he r F i na l l y, i t i s o f t e n poi nt e d out t ha t c i vi c or ga ni z a t i ons c a pa c i t y t o unde r m i ne a nd di s m a nt l e a ut hor i t a r i a n gove r n m e nt s c a n j us t a s e a s i l y c a us e t he c ol l a ps e of a ne w de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e m a ki ng c i vi l s oc i e t y i t s e l f a po t e nt i a l t hr e a t t o t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s ( V a r s hne y 2001, 265 ) T he a bove c r i t i que s i l l us t r a t e t ha t t he pr e s e nc e of a s s oc i a t i ona l ne t w or ks a nd a s t r ong c i vi c t r a di t i on i n a nd o f t he m s e l ve s do not gua r a nt e e a s uc c e s s f ul de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on or c ons ol i da t i on. I n s t e a d, a va r i e t y o f c o ndi t i ons m us t be i n pl a c e t o f os t e r a

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55 he a l t hy c i vi l s oc i e t y a nd a be ne f i c i a l c i vi l s oc i e t y s t a t e r e l a t i ons hi p. F i r s t a nd f o r e m os t c i vi l s oc i e t y m us t be r e l a t i ve l y a ut onom ous f r om p ol i t i c a l s oc i e t y. O r ga ni z a t i ons a nd gr oups w i t hi n c i vi l s oc i e t y m us t be i nde pe nde nt f r om t he s t a t e i n t e r m s of f i na nc i ng ope r a t i ons a nd l e ga l s t a ndi ng. A t t he s a m e t i m e p ol i t i c a l s oc i e t y m us t be a ut onom ous a nd e nj oy s uf f i c i e nt l e gi t i m a c y a nd c a pa c i t y t o l i m i t t he pow e r of c i vi l s oc i e t y, e s pe c i a l l y i nt e r e s t gr oups on t he gove r na nc e of t he s t a t e ( D i a m ond 1994, 13 14) A s t r ong s t a t e a ppa r a t us t ha t e nj oys s i gni f i c a nt publ i c s uppor t w i l l be a bl e t o a c t a s a n e xt e r na l m e di a t i ng f or c e t o que l l pot e nt i a l c onf l i c t s be t w e e n c om pe t i ng c i vi l s oc i e t y or ga ni z a t i ons S uc h a n a r r a nge m e nt c a n onl y oc c u r how e ve r i f c i vi l s oc i e t y s t a t e i nt e r a c t i ons a nd e xc ha nge s a r e i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d a n d e m be dde d w i t hi n a l e ga l s ys t e m ( L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1998 9) A be ne f i c i a l c i vi l s oc i e t y s t a t e r e l a t i ons hi p r e qui r e s w e l l e s t a bl i s he d a n d a gr e e d upon r ul e s a nd r e gul a t i ons pl a c e d on s oc i e t y a nd t he s t a t e t ha t e nc our a ge t r a ns pa r e nc y a nd r e s t r i c t i ons of pow e r o n t he s t a t e a nd a l l ow f or f r e e a s s oc i a t i on, i nde pe nde nt m e di a a nd pl u r a l i s m i n c i vi l s oc i e t y ( D i a m ond 1994, 15) T he pot e nt i a l f or c i vi l o r ga ni z a t i ons t o i nc i t e vi ol e nc e a ga i ns t one a not he r or t he s t a t e i s s e ve r e l y l e s s e ne d w he n t he de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt i s vi e w e d a s l e gi t i m a t e a nd e f f e c t i ve T he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on o f pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s w i t h br o a d ba s e s of s uppor t a l s o l e s s e ns t he n e e d f or s uc h o r ga ni z a t i ons t o r a di c a l i z e l e a di ng t o m or e m ode r a t e de m a nds a nd a hi ghe r l i ke l i hood of c oope r a t i on. F i na l l y a de pt h o f a s s oc i a t i ona l l i f e be s t e xe m pl i f i e d by t he a bi l i t y of i ndi vi dua l s t o j oi n m ul t i pl e a nd d i ve r s e o r ga ni z a t i ons i nc r e a s e s t he a bi l i t y of a s s oc i a t i ona l ne t w or ks t o s pa n pr e e xi s t i ng s oc i a l di vi de s T he a r e na of c i vi l s oc i e t y i s a ne c e s s a r y c om pone nt i n t r a ns i t i ons t o de m oc r a c y a nd i s e s s e nt i a l i n t he pr e s e r va t i on o f de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s C i vi l s oc i e t y, how e ve r c a n

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56 a l s o s e r ve a s a s our c e of c onf l i c t a nd t h r e a t s t o de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i f t he r i ght c ondi t i ons a r e not i n pl a c e A w e a k o r unpopul a r gove r nm e nt c a n be c om e pe ne t r a t e d a nd ove r pow e r e d by s pe c i a l i nt e r e s t s a nd r e nt s e e ke r s a nd a l a c k of w i de ne t w or ks o f a s s oc i a t i on a c r os s gr oups a l l ow s f or r a di c a l i z a t i on a m ong c i vi l s oc i e t y or ga ni z a t i ons C i vi l s oc i e t y ha s de m ons t r a t e d a r e m a r ka bl e a bi l i t y t o a i d de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on, but t he de ve l opm e nt of a s t r ong, di ve r s e a nd de m oc r a t i c a l l y or i e nt e d c i vi c t r a di t i on i s a l s o s t r ongl y i nf l ue nc e d by t he de c i s i ons a nd de s i gns of e l i t e s i n pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y. T he e l i t e s w ho gui de t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s m us t c r e a t e a nd a bi de by a s t r ong l e ga l s ys t e m t ha t c r e a t e s a ut onom y f or pol i t i c a l a nd c i vi l s oc i e t y by pl a c i ng c he c ks on a bus e s of s t a t e pow e r a nd a l l ow i ng f r e e a s s oc i a t i on a nd r e pr e s e nt a t i on of di ve r s e i nt e r e s t s a nd goa l s i n c i vi l s oc i e t y. C i vi l S oc i e t y i n I n d i a an d P ak i s t an A l t hough t he I N C a nd M us l i m L e a gue r e a c he d t he he i ght of t he i r pow e r du r i ng t he c ol oni a l e r a a s pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s bot h o r ga ni z a t i ons be ga n a s c i vi l a s s oc i a t i ons a nd c ont i nue d t o us e t hi s a r e na t o pr e s s ur e t he B r i t i s h g ove r nm e nt f or pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on. T he pr ot e s t s r i ot s m a r c he s a nd c i vi l di s obe di e nc e c a m pa i gns i ni t i a t e d by C ongr e s s a nd t he L e a gu e dur i ng t he w a ni ng ye a r s of B r i t i s h dom i na nc e w e r e i ns t r um e nt a l i n a c hi e vi ng i nde pe nde nc e a nd pa r t i t i on a nd i ni t i a t i ng I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n s t r a ns i t i ons t o de m oc r a c y T he r ol e of c i vi c or ga ni z a t i ons i n t oppl i ng B r i t i s h r ul e de m ons t r a t e s t ha t t he r e w a s a s t r ong a s s oc i a t i ona l l i f e i n t he s ubc ont i ne nt de s pi t e f r e que nt r e pr e s s i ons by t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt A s t he pol i t i c a l s oc i e t i e s of bot h na t i ons be ga n t o t a ke di ve r ge nt r out e s

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57 how e ve r t he na t u r e of c i vi l s oc i e t y be ga n t o c ha ng e a s w e l l be c om i ng r e pr e s s e d a nd pol i t i c i z e d i n P a ki s t a n w hi l e r e m a i ni ng l i ve l y a nd i nde pe nde nt i n I ndi a A r t i c l e 19 o f t he I ndi a n c ons t i t ut i on a l l ow e d f o r f r e e dom of a s s oc i a t i on, e xpr e s s i on a nd t he pr e s s a nd pr ohi bi t s s t a t e i nt e r ve nt i on i n t he s e a r e a s A r t i c l e s 15 a nd 16 pr ohi bi t va r i ous f o r m s of di s c r i m i na t i on by pr ot e c t i ng e qua l a c c e s s t o publ i c s pa c e s a nd e m pl oym e nt A r t i c l e 25 pe r t a i ns t o r e l i gi o n i n I ndi a e ns hr i ni ng s e c ul a r i s m a s t he gui di ng pr i nc i pl e of t he gove r nm e nt U nde r N e hr u s s e c ul a r vi s i on of t he I ndi a n R e publ i c t he r e i s no s t a t e r e l i gi on no s t a t e f undi n g of o r t a xe s on r e l i gi ous or ga ni z a t i ons a nd a l l of I ndi a s r e l i gi ons w e r e g r a nt e d e qua l r i gh t s a nd a ut onom y unde r t he l a w ( P a nt ha m 2004, 248 49 ) T a ke n t oge t he r t he s e l a w s c r e a t e d ba r r i e r s t o s t a t e i nt e r ve n t i on i n I ndi a s a l r e a dy l i ve l y a nd di ve r s e c i vi l s oc i e t y. T he t r a de uni ons r e l i gi ous or ga ni z a t i ons a nd vol unt a r y o r ga ni z a t i on s t ha t ha d a l r e a dy e xi s t e d i n I ndi a s oon gr e w a nd m ul t i pl i e d unde r t he R e publ i c s ne w c on s t i t ut i on. A hos t o f ne w o r ga ni z a t i ons a nd m ove m e nt s s uc h a s w om e n s r i ght s gr oups l o w e r c a s t e e m pow e r m e nt m ove m e nt s a nd a gr a r i a n a s s oc i a t i ons a l s o f or m e d dur i ng t he e a r l y ye a r s of i nde pe nde nc e a nd i nc r e a s e d i n s i z e c om pl e xi t y, a nd num be r ( D e s hpa nde 2004, 379 80) D e s pi t e t he s e pos i t i ve qu a l i t i e s c i vi l s oc i e t y i n I ndi a w a s not w i t hout i t s f l a w s A l t hough a s s oc i a t i ona l ne t w or ks dur i ng t he c ol oni a l e r a ha d s pr e a d hor i z o nt a l l y, b r i dgi ng ge ogr a phi c a l a nd e t hni c di vi de s t he r e w a s a gr e a t e r de e pe ni ng o f s u c h t i e s ve r t i c a l l y, a l ong l i ne s of c l a s s e t hni c i t y a nd r e l i gi on ( K ot ha r i 1970 286) D e s pi t e s om e pr obl e m a r e a s i n I nd i a n c i vi l s oc i e t y, t he s e i s s ue s pa l e i n c om pa r i s on t o t he na t u r e of s t a t e c i vi l s oc i e t y r e l a t i ons i n i nde pe nde nt P a ki s t a n. T he de s i gn of t he c ons t i t ue nt a s s e m bl y of P a ki s t a n i nt e nde d t o be t e m por a r y a nd s hor t t e r m

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58 i nc l ude d br oa d e xe c ut i ve pow e r s a nd i l l de f i ne d r i ght s f or c i t i z e ns T he L e a gue l e a de r s hi p i ni t i a t e d a s e r i e s of r e pr e s s i ve pol i c i e s dur i ng t he f i r s t f e w ye a r s of i nde pe nde nc e a i m e d a t que l l i ng c i vi l unr e s t a nd p r ot e s t s ove r gove r nm e nt c or r upt i on. T he s e m e a s ur e s i nc l ude d c e ns or s hi p of t he pr e s s a nd 1949 l a w s a l l ow i ng p r e ve nt a t i ve de t e nt i on a nd pr ohi bi t i ng ga t he r i ngs o f m o r e t ha n f i ve pe opl e ( B a xt e r 1995 39 40) W i t hout l a w s pr ot e c t i ng a s s oc i a t i ona l l i f e f r om go ve r nm e nt i nt e r ve nt i on c i vi l s oc i e t y i n P a ki s t a n w a s r a pi dl y pol i t i c i z e d, a s t he M us l i m L e a gue e s t a bl i s he d pa t r ona ge ne t w or ks w i t h va r i ous or ga ni z a t i ons a nd m ove m e nt s t o c om pe ns a t e f or a l a c k o f o r ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y a nd gr a s s r oot s s uppor t ( B e c ke r 1995 20 0 ) N o s e c t or o f c i vi l s oc i e t y w a s m or e a c t i ve l y c our t e d by t he L e a gue a nd ot he r pa r t i e s t h a n r e l i gi ous or ga ni z a t i ons U nl i ke I ndi a P a ki s t a n s ought t o us e I s l a m a s a gui di ng p r i nc i pl e of gove r na nc e a nd t he ba s i s of a na t i ona l i de nt i t y. A l t hough m e m b e r s of t he c ons t i t ue nt a s s e m bl y w oul d de ba t e f or ni ne ye a r s a s t o t he e xa c t r ol e of r e l i gi on i n t he s t a t e m a ny pol i t i c i a ns pr ovi de d f undi ng f or M os que s a nd I s l a m i c or ga ni z a t i ons i n e xc ha nge f o r e l e c t or a l s uppor t ( S a ye e d 1967 78 79 ) T he pe ne t r a t i on o f c i vi l s oc i e t y by t he P a ki s t a ni s t a t e w or ke d bot h w a ys a nd pow e r f ul s pe c i a l i nt e r e s t s w e r e a bl e t o e xe r t a hi gh de gr e e of i nf l ue nc e on t he gove r nm e nt ( C a ndl a nd 2001, 71 72 ) A l t hough bot h I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n be ga n t he i r r e s pe c t i ve t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s w i t h s t r ong c i vi c t r a di t i ons I nd i a a dopt e d a c ons t i t ut i on t ha t a l l ow e d f or f r e e dom o f a s s oc i a t i on a nd s e ve r e l y l i m i t e d s t a t e i nt e r a c t i on i n s oc i a l l i f e C i vi l s oc i e t y gr oups i n I ndi a w e r e a l s o i m bue d w i t h a de m oc r a t i c c ha r a c t e r a nd m a ny c ut a c r os s t r a di t i ona l s oc i a l di vi de s P a ki s t a ni c i vi l s oc i e t y w a s r e pr e s s e d a nd c a pt ur e d by M us l i m L e a gue pa t r ona ge ne t w or ks a s t he pa r t y de s pe r a t e l y t r i e d t o m a i nt a i n i t s t e nuous g r a s p on t he

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59 na t i on. T he us e o f r e l i g i on a s a m e a ns of e s t a bl i s hi ng a na t i ona l i de nt i t y i n P a ki s t a n a l s o l e d t o t he po l i t i c i z a t i on o f f a i t h ba s e d or ga ni z a t i on s a nd t he c r e a t i on o f de e pl y e nt r e nc he d s pe c i a l i nt e r e s t s w i t hi n t he gove r nm e nt A l t hough t he P a ki s t a ni c ons t i t ut i on of 1956 pl a c e d l i m i t a t i ons on s t a t e pow e r a nd a l l ow e d f or m a ny r i ght s a nd f r e e dom s t he da m a ge w a s a l r e a dy done a nd t he ne w na t i on s c i vi c l a nds c a pe l a y i n s ha m bl e s R u l e of L aw A t i t s m os t ba s i c l e ve l t he t e r m r ul e of l a w de s c r i b e s a l e ga l s ys t e m i n w hi c h l a w s a r e c odi f i e d, publ i c l y know n a nd e na c t e d f a i r l y a n d e qua l l y by l e gi t i m a t e a ut hor i t i e s f ol l ow i ng s t a nda r di z e d pr oc e dur e s ( O D onne l l 200 4, 33) I n t he c ont e xt of de m oc r a t i z a t i on s t udi e s t he r u l e of l a w m os t o f t e n r e f e r s t o t he c ons t i t ut i ona l f r a m e w or k upon w hi c h t he de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e i s bui l t a nd l a w s of t he s t a t e a s w e l l a s t he j udi c i a r i e s l e ga l c ul t ur e c our t s a nd ot he r s t a t e i ns t i t ut i ons t ha t e na c t a nd e nf or c e t he s e l a w s ( L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1998, 10) E s t a bl i s hi ng a l e ga l f ounda t i on f or a ne w de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e a nd c r e a t i ng a l e ga l s ys t e m t ha t w i l l m a i nt a i n ba s i c de m oc r a t i c a t t r i but e s s uc h a s pol i t i c a l e qua l i t y, c i vi l r i ght s a nd l i be r t i e s a nd gove r nm e nt a l a c c ount a bi l i t y i s e s s e nt i a l t o t he a c hi e ve m e nt of de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. L e ga l s ys t e m s a nd c ons t i t ut i ons how e ve r a r e a s va r i e d a nd di ve r s e a s t he de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s t h a t c r a f t e d t he m di f f e r i ng gr e a t l y i n t e r m s of c onf i gur a t i on a nd ove r a l l e f f e c t i ve ne s s R e c e nt s t udi e s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on ha ve f oc us e d on t he r ol e of l a w i n de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on s pr oduc i ng m a ny t he or i e s a s t o w ha t l a w s a nd l e ga l i ns t i t ut i ons a r e n e c e s s a r y f or c ons ol i da t i ng a de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e

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60 U nde r s t a nda bl y, c ons t i t ut i ona l de s i gn ha s be e n t he s ubj e c t of m uc h a na l ys i s by de m oc r a t i z a t i on t he or i s t s A s t he f ounda t i ona l doc um e nt out l i ni ng t he e xt e nt a nd pr i nc i pl e s of a de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e t he de s i gn of a c ons t i t ut i on c a n ha ve a pr o f ound e f f e c t on a s t a t e s pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on A l t hough c ons i de r a bl e de ba t e e xi s t s a s t o w hi c h t ype o f e l e c t or a l r ul e s a nd di vi s i ons of gove r nm e nt a l pow e r s houl d be gua r a nt e e d by a ne w c ons t i t ut i on t he r e doe s a ppe a r t o be s om e c ons e ns us on t he ba s i c r e qui r e m e nt s f or a de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i on T he c ons t i t ut i on m us t gua r a nt e e t he f unda m e nt a l r i ght s l i be r t i e s a nd pol i t i c a l e qua l i t i e s ne e de d f or a s t a t e t o c ons t i t ut e a de m oc r a c y ( W e i nga s t 1997, 246 ) T he c ons t i t ut i o n m us t a l s o be w i de l y a gr e e d upon a nd c ont a i n s a f e gua r ds a ga i ns t r e vi s i ons a nd a m e ndm e nt s I de a l l y, a de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i on s houl d i nc l ude s e l f r e gul a t or y pr i nc i pl e s a nd p r oc e dur e s t ha t onl y a l l ow s i gni f i c a nt c ha nge s t o be m a de t hr ough a s upe r m a j or i t y de c i s i on ( L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1998, 10) A s i gni f i c a nt f a c t or i n t he de s i gn of de m oc r a t i c c o ns t i t ut i ons i s t he c ons i de r a t i on of pr e e xi s t i ng s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l d i vi s i ons w i t hi n a t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e B e s i de s e ns hr i ni ng de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s s uc h a s pol i t i c a l e qua l i t y, c i vi l r i ght s a nd l i be r t i e s i n a r ul e of l a w c ons t i t ut i ons m us t a l s o c r a f t i ns t i t ut i on s a nd gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s t ha t e ns ur e a ve nue s of r e pr e s e nt a t i on a nd pa t hs t o f or m a l pow e r f o r a l l c l a s s e s r a c e s a nd e t hni c gr oups S c hol a r s ha ve o f f e r e d di f f e r i ng opi ni ons on how de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i ons c a n be s t e ns ur e t he ki nd o f e qua l i t y a nd f r e e dom s t ha t w i l l unde r c ut s oc i a l di vi de s A l t hough m os t pr om i ne nt de m oc r a t i z a t i on t he or i s t s a s s e r t t ha t t he r e i s no one s i z e f i t s a l l m ode l of how t o m a na ge s oc i a l pl ur a l i s m m os t s c hol a r s a gr e e t ha t pow e r s ha r i ng a nd gr oup a ut onom y m e a s ur e s a r e t he m os t e f f e c t i ve w a y t o gove r n di vi de d s oc i e t i e s P ow e r s ha r i ng a r r a nge m e nt s e ns ur e t ha t r e pr e s e nt a t i ve s f r om a l l s i gni f i c a nt c om m un i t i e s

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61 t a ke pa r t i n t he de c i s i on m a ki ng p r oc e s s e s of a de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt G r oup a ut onom y e nt a i l s t he a bi l i t y of t he s e c om m uni t i e s t o m a na ge i nt e r na l a f f a i r s w i t hout s i gni f i c a nt i nt e r f e r e nc e f r om t he s t a t e or a ny ot he r out s i de a ut hor i t y. G r oup a ut onom y i s e s pe c i a l l y i m por t a nt f or e t hni c m i nor i t i e s w hi c h m us t be gua r a nt e e d s om e pol i t i c a l pow e r a s w e l l a s r i ght s a nd f r e e dom s t o pr a c t i c e a n d pr om ul ga t e t he i r c ul t u r e s ( L i j pa r t 2004, 98 99 ) C r i t i c s of pow e r s ha r i ng a r r a nge m e nt s c ha r ge t ha t pr a c t i c e s s uc h a s gua r a nt e e i n g s e a t s f or e t hni c m i no r i t i e s i n t he l e gi s l a t ur e a nd t he c a bi ne t or t he c r e a t i on of s e pa r a t e e l e c t or a t e s a r e f unda m e nt a l l y unde m oc r a t i c T he y a r gue a ga i ns t pow e r s ha r i ng pr ovi s i ons i n de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i ons be l i e vi ng t ha t t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s m us t ba s e t he s t r uc t ur e a nd pr oc e dur e s o f gove r na nc e o n s ol i dl y de m oc r a t i c p r i nc i pl e s ( T ul l a nd M e hl e r 2005, 377 ) P r opone nt s of pow e r s ha r i ng, how e ve r a r gue t ha t s uc h a r r a nge m e nt s a r e t he be s t m e a ns of ove r c om i ng p r e e xi s t i ng s oc i a l di vi s i ons a nd i ne qua l i t i e s by e ns ur i ng t ha t a l l gr oups ha ve a s t a ke i n t he ne w r e gi m e a nd a r e gr a nt e d s om e ba r ga i ni ng pow e r T he l a w s of a de m oc r a t i c s t a t e e s pe c i a l l y i t s c ons t i t ut i on, m us t pl a c e l i m i t s on s t a t e pow e r a nd m a i nt a i n de m oc r a t i c di s c i pl i ne t hr ough t e r m l i m i t s m e c ha ni s m s of a c c ount a bi l i t y a nd l e ga l obs t a c l e s t o a bus e s of pow e r L a w s r e gul a t i ons a nd e ve n c ons t i t ut i ons how e ve r a r e onl y one pa r t of t he r ul e of l a w a nd a r e ul t i m a t e l y m e a ni ngl e s s w i t hout t he i ns t i t ut i ons t ha t i n t e r pr e t m a i nt a i n, a nd e n f or c e t he r ul e o f l a w i n de m oc r a t i c s t a t e s T he c r e a t i on of a j udi c i a l b r a nc h, i nc l udi ng a hi e r a r c hy of c ou r t s a nd a t t e nda nt i ns t i t ut i ons i s vi t a l t o t he a c hi e ve m e nt of de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. J udge s a nd c our t s a r e m e a nt t o pr ov i de a n i m pa r t i a l t hi r d pe r s pe c t i ve on c onf l i c t be t w e e n t w o pa r t i e s T hi s r ol e be c om e s e s pe c i a l l y i m por t a nt w he n j udi c i a r i e s m us t m e di a t e c onf l i c t s

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62 be t w e e n t he s t a t e a nd s oc i e t y or be t w e e n di f f e r e nt br a nc he s of gove r nm e nt T he j udi c i a l s ys t e m i n de m oc r a t i z i ng s t a t e s i s ne c e s s a r y f or e nf or c i ng t he p r i nc i pl e s a nd pr oc e dur e s of gove r na nc e out l i ne d i n t he c ons t i t ut i on a nd f or c on t a i ni ng t he a bus e s of pow e r a nd c or r upt i on t ha t a r e l i ke l y t o oc c ur i n a t r a ns i t i on s e t t i ng. E f f e c t i ve a nd d i s c i pl i ne d j udi c i a r i e s t he r e f o r e c a n g r e a t l y e xpe di t e t he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of de m oc r a t i c nor m s a nd pr a c t i c e s a s w e l l f os t e r publ i c opt i m i s m i n a f l e dgl i ng de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e by e ns ur i ng a c c ount a bi l i t y t o t he c ons t i t ut i on T he j udi c i a r y c a n onl y pl a y t hi s r ol e how e ve r i f t he l e ga l s ys t e m r e m a i ns i nde pe nde nt a nd a ut onom ous I f t he c our t s a r e c a p t ur e d by pa r t i e s or po l i t i c i a ns t he n t he i r a bi l i t y t o obj e c t i ve l y i nt e r pr e t l a w s a nd a r bi t r a t e di s put e s e nds a nd t he l e ga l s ys t e m be c om e s pa r t of t he a bus e s of pow e r i t i s m e a nt t o c ont a i n. D u r i ng de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons t he pol i t i c i z a t i on of t he j udi c i a l br a nc h i s a s i gni f i c a nt t hr e a t a s t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt m us t of t e n de s i gn c om pl e t e l y ne w l e g a l i ns t i t ut i ons a nd a s s i gn pos i t i ons w i t hi n t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons T he c ons t r uc t i on of t he j udi c i a l br a nc h by po l i t i c a l e l i t e s h a s l e d t o t he c r e a t i on of pa t r ona ge ne t w or ks a nd pol i t i c i z e d c our t s i n m a ny t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s a nd i s a s i gni f i c a nt f a c t or i n m a ny s t a l l e d o r f a i l e d t r a ns i t i ons ( L a r ki ns 1996, 612 15) A l t hough e s t a bl i s hi ng j udi c i a l i nde pe nde nc e i s l a r ge l y de pe nde nt on t he a c c e pt a nc e a nd pr a c t i c e of de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s by pol i t i c a l e l i t e s m a ny s t udi e s ha ve s how n t ha t t he j udi c i a l br a nc h ha s c ons i de r a bl e a bi l i t y t o e m p ow e r i t s s e l f a ga i ns t out s i de i nt e r f e r e nc e I f t he de c i s i ons of t he j udi c i a r y a r e r e s pe c t e d by pol i t i c a l e l i t e s e a r l y du r i ng t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s t he n t he r e i s a gr e a t e r l i ke l i h ood of t he j udi c i a l b r a nc h s r ol e be c om i ng i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d. T hi s i s t o s a y, t ha t t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of a n e f f e c t i ve a nd f or c e f ul j udi c i a r y t ha t i s i ns ul a t e d f r o m pa r t y pol i t i c s m us t oc c ur e a r l y i n t he t r a ns i t i on

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63 pe r i od. I f j udi c i a l i nde pe nde nc e i s c om pr om i s e d d ur i ng a r e gi m e c ha nge t he l i ke l i hood of de m oc r a t i c p r i nc i pl e s a nd pr oc e dur e s be c om i ng i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d e nough t o a c hi e ve c ons ol i da t i on i s hi ghl y unl i ke l y ( E ps t e i n e t a l 2001 119) D e m oc r a t i c s t a t e s r e qui r e a r ul e of l a w t o gua r a nt e e a l l t he r i ght s l i be r t i e s a nd pol i t i c a l e qua l i t i e s t ha t de f i ne de m oc r a c y. D e m oc r a t i c r ul e of l a w m us t be ba s e d on a s ound c ons t i t ut i ona l f r a m e w or k t ha t pl a c e s l i m i t s on s t a t e pow e r e n s ur e s gove r nm e nt a l a c c ount a bi l i t y, c ont a i ns s e l f bi ndi ng pr oc e dur e s a nd pr ovi de s a l e ga l a nd pol i t i c a l s t r uc t ur e t ha t e ns ur e s c oope r a t i on a m ong di ve r s e p opul a t i ons T he l a w s a nd c ons t i t ut i on of a s t a t e m us t e nf o r c e d by a n i nde pe nde nt de pol i t i c i z e d j udi c i a r y t ha t w i l l a c t i ve l y s e e k out a nd puni s h unc ons t i t ut i ona l p r a c t i c e s i n gove r n m e nt dur i ng t he t r a ns i t i on pe r i od. I f a l l t he s e c ondi t i ons a r e m e t t he n t he l e ga l s ys t e m c a n gr e a t l y i nc r e a s e t he l i ke l i hood of de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. R u l e of L aw i n I n d i a an d P ak i s t a n A s t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt s of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n be ga n dr a f t i ng de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i ons f ol l ow i ng i nde pe nde nc e a nd pa r t i t i on t he l a w s a nd pr oc e dur e s of gove r na nc e out l i ne d i n t he 1935 G ove r n m e nt of I n di a A c t w e r e us e d a s t he p r ovi s i ona l c ons t i t ut i on f or bot h s t a t e s B r i t i s h r u l e ha d l e f t t h e s ubc ont i ne nt w i t h a f unc t i ona l s ys t e m of c our t s a nd a l e ga l s ys t e m ba s e d on a c o m bi na t i on of B r i t i s h c om m on l a w a nd w ha t w a s be l i e ve d ( l a r ge l y e r r one ous l y) by t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt t o be na t i ve I n di a n l a w c ode s ( C ohn 1989, 140) T he s e pr ovi de d t he f r a m e w or ks f r om w hi c h bot h na t i ons ba s e d ne w l a w s a nd l e ga l i ns t i t ut i ons a t t e m pt i ng t o m a i nt a i n a n e f f i c i e nt j ud i c i a r y w hi l e e l i m i na t i ng t he p r obl e m s w i t h t he G ove r nm e nt o f I ndi a A c t a nd t he a ppl i c a t i on of B r i t i s h

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64 l a w s t o I ndi a A s t he pol i t i c a l s ys t e m s i n e a c h s t a t e de ve l ope d a l ong di f f e r e nt r out e s s o t oo di d t he r ul e o f l a w I ndi a s t r a ns i t i on t o de m oc r a c y w a s gr e a t l y a c c e l e r a t e d by i t s f a vor a bl e c ons t i t ut i on a nd l a w s w hi l e P a ki s t a n s l e ga l i ns t i t u t i ons f a i l e d t o c he c k c or r upt i on, a bus e s of pow e r a nd unde m oc r a t i c be h a vi or M us l i m s i n c ol oni a l I ndi a ha d m or e r e s t r i c t e d a c c e s s t o gove r nm e nt pos t s a nd e duc a t i on t ha t a l l ow e d m e m be r s o f t he m a i nl y H i n du m i ddl e c l a s s t o be c om e l a w ye r s a nd j udge s i n t he l e ga l s ys t e m of t he R a j F ol l ow i ng p a r t i t i on, I ndi a i nhe r i t e d a va s t m a j or i t y of t he f or m e r c ol oni a l l e ga l c ul t ur e a s w e l l a s e xp e r i e nc e d j udge s a nd c our t s ys t e m s T he c om m i t t e e s c ha r ge d w i t h dr a f t i ng t he c ons t i t ut i on m a de us e of t he s e i ndi vi dua l s a t e ve r y s t e p of t he de s i gn pr oc e s s a nd t he f i na l f or m of t he I ndi a n c ons t i t ut i on f i r m l y e s t a bl i s he d t he r ul e of l a w a nd c r e a t e d i ns t i t ut i ons t o m a i nt a i n i t T he c ons t i t ut i on of I ndi a i nc l ude s a l l t he r i ght s a nd f r e e dom s t ha t de m oc r a t i z a t i on t he or i s t s c l a i m a r e r e qui r e d of a de m oc r a t i c s t a t e I t a l s o e ns ur e s pol i t i c a l a nd l e ga l e qua l i t y, gua r a nt e e i ng a l l c i t i z e ns due pr oc e s s be f or e t he l a w f ol l ow i ng e s t a bl i s he d pr oc e dur e s a nd pr e c e de nt s ( K ot ha r i 1970 105 06 ) T he c ons t i t ut i on a l s o e s t a bl i s he d c ons i de r a bl e hur dl e s t o a m e ndm e nt A m e ndi ng t he C ons t i t ut i on r e qui r e s a t w o t hi r ds m a j or i t y vot e i n P a r l i a m e nt a nd a l l p r opos e d c ons t i t ut i ona l r e vi s i o ns a nd a m e ndm e nt s a r e r e qui r e d t o r e s pe c t t he ba s i c s t r uc t ur e a nd pr i nc i pl e s of t he c o ns t i t ut i on a nd s ubj e c t i ng a m e nd m e nt s t o a pr oc e s s of j ud i c i a l r e vi e w ( C or br i dge a nd H a r r i s s 2000, 146 47 ) T he I ndi a n c ons t i t ut i on a l s o e s t a bl i s he d a hi e r a r c hy of c our t s w i t h a n i nde pe nde nt S up r e m e C our t a t t he t op. T he S upr e m e C our t a s de s i gne d i n t he or i gi na l c ons t i t ut i on c ons i s t e d of a c hi e f j us t i c e a nd s e ve n ot he r j udge s a ppoi nt e d by t he pr e s i de nt f ol l ow i ng r e vi e w by t he l e gi s l a t ur e T he c ons t i t ut i on a l s o e s t a bl i s he d r e qui r e m e nt s f or a ppoi nt m e nt t o t he

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65 S upr e m e C our t i nc l udi ng no l e s s t ha n f i ve ye a r s o f e xpe r i e nc e on a hi gh c our t T he S upr e m e C our t o f I ndi a ha s j ur i s di c t i on ove r di s pu t e s be t w e e n t he gove r nm e nt a nd s t a t e s di s put e be t w e e n s t a t e s a nd c a s e s i nvol vi ng vi ol a t i o n of c ons t i t ut i ona l r i ght s O t he r c a s e s a r e t a ke n up by D i s t r i c t C our t s a nd t he H i gh C our t of e a c h s t a t e ( P a l m e r 1960 137 39) M us l i m s w e r e unde r r e pr e s e nt e d i n t he c ol oni a l go ve r na nc e s t r uc t ur e a c r os s t he s ubc ont i ne nt E ve n i n t he pr ovi nc e s t ha t be c a m e P a ki s t a n, m os t of t he l a w ye r s j udge s a nd c our t f unc t i ona r i e s w e r e H i ndus or S i khs w ho f l e d t o I ndi a f o l l o w i ng pa r t i t i on a nd t he ons e t of c om m una l r i ot i ng U pon i nde pe nde nc e e s t a bl i s hi ng a r ul e of l a w a nd l e ga l i ns t i t ut i ons w a s l e f t t o t he f e w M us l i m s w i t h e xpe r i e nc e i n t he c ol oni a l c our t s ys t e m M us l i m s w e r e s o unde r r e pr e s e nt e d i n t hi s a r e a t ha t upon i nde pe nde nc e l e s s t ha n f i f t y pe r c e nt of t he c our t s w e r e f unc t i ona l f ol l ow i ng t he de pa r t ur e o f t he B r i t i s h, H i ndus a nd S i khs ( S a ye e d 1967, 61 62 ) I n t he r us h t o f i l l j udi c i a l pos i t i ons L e a gue pol i t i c i a ns r e a di l y i ns e r t e d t he i r ow n l oya l i s t s a nd t he j ud i c i a l br a nc h qui c kl y be c a m e pol i t i c i z e d. T he 1935 G ove r nm e nt of I ndi a A c t t ha t s e r ve d a s P a ki s t a n s pr ovi s i ona l c ons t i t ut i on c ont a i ne d no pr ot e c t i ons on r i ght s o r f r e e dom s a n d w ha t l e ga l c ode t he A c t di d c ont a i n w a s s ubj e c t t o c ons t a nt r e vi s i on unde r t he br o a d e x e c ut i ve pow e r gi ve n t o t he G ove r no r G e ne r a l ( B e c ke r 1995, 203 04) R e pr e s e nt a t i on i n t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y w a s s ke w e d s o t ha t S i ndh, B a l uc hi s t a n a nd t he N or t h W e s t F r o nt i e r P r ov i nc e w e r e unde r r e pr e s e nt e d i n r e l a t i on t o t he L e a gue s ba s e of pow e r i n t he P u nj a b. E a s t P a ki s t a n w a s pa r t i c ul a r l y a f f e c t e d by i s s ue s of r e pr e s e nt a t i on, c om pr i s i ng on l y f or t y pe r c e nt o f t he a s s e m bl y de s pi t e m a ki ng up ove r ha l f o f t he popul a t i on ( J a ha n 1975, 14 15)

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66 E c on om i c S oc i e t y R e c e nt s t udi e s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on, e s pe c i a l l y t hos e f oc us i ng on f or m e r c om m uni s t s t a t e s ha ve be c om e i nc r e a s i ngl y c onc e r ne d ove r t he r ol e of e c onom i c f a c t or s i n de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons M a ny s c hol a r s ha ve a r g ue d t ha t de m oc r a t i z a t i on m us t go ha nd i n ha nd w i t h e c onom i c de ve l opm e nt or t ha t de m o c r a t i c r e gi m e s r e qui r e c a pi t a l i s t e c onom i c s ys t e m s t o be c om e c ons ol i da t e d ( B ur kha r t a nd L e w i s B e c k 1994, 903) L i nz a nd S t e pa n, how e ve r poi nt out t ha t a l t hough de m o c r a t i c r e gi m e s c a nnot e m e r ge f r om t he c om m a nd e c onom i e s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h a ut hor i t a r i a n gove r nm e nt s no c ons ol i da t e d de m oc r a c y ha s e ve r e m e r ge d f r om a pur e m a r ke t e c onom y e i t he r ( L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1998 11 12) T he a ut hor s a r gue t ha t w hi l e de ve l opm e nt a nd m a r ke t di ve r s i t y a r e i m por t a nt f a c t or s i n de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons w ha t i s m or e i m p or t a nt f o r pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i s t he c r e a t i on o f a n e c onom i c s oc i e t y. E c onom i c s oc i e t y i s de f i ne d a s t he s oc i o pol i t i c a l l y c r a f t e d a nd s oc i o pol i t i c a l l y a gr e e d upon nor m s i ns t i t ut i ons a nd r e gul a t i ons t ha t m e di a t e be t w e e n t he s t a t e a nd m a r ke t ( 1998, 11) B e c a us e of t he i m pa c t t ha t t he e c onom y c a n ha ve on de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i o ns t he c r e a t i on a nd i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of a n e c onom i c s oc i e t y i s o f ut m os t i m por t a nc e i n t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of e c onom i c c ondi t i ons t ha t a r e f a vor a bl e f o r de m oc r a c y. S t u di e s of de m oc r a c y ha ve l ong s ought t o e xpl a i n t he va r i a t i on o f de m oc r a t i c pe r f or m a nc e a m ong t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s a s a r e s ul t of di f f e r i ng l e ve l s o f e c onom i c de ve l opm e nt I t i s ge ne r a l l y a r gue d t ha t a p r os pe r ous e c onom y i s r e qui r e d f or s uc c e s s f ul de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on a s i t m a i nt a i ns publ i c s a t i s f a c t i on w i t h t he ne w r e gi m e a nd pr ovi de s a s t a bl e a nd l uc r a t i ve t a x ba s e f r om w hi c h t o f und t he c r e a t i on a nd e xpa ns i on of

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67 ne w s t a t e i ns t i t ut i ons ( L i ps e t 1959 72 73) A hi gh l e ve l of pove r t y a nd c onf l i c t ua l c l a s s r e l a t i ons a r e of t e n r e ga r de d a s s i gni f i c a nt obs t a c l e s t o de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. A vi br a nt a nd p r os pe r ous e c onom y c a n l e s s e n t he di v i s i ons a nd t e ns i ons be t w e e n e c onom i c c l a s s e s by s hr i nki ng e xt r e m e s i n i nc om e a nd by c r e a t i ng a ve nue s of s oc i o e c onom i c a dva nc e m e nt ( R ue s he m e ye r a nd M a hone y 2000, 1 587 88) C a pi t a l i s t e c onom i e s a r e a l s o c r e di t e d w i t h s hr i nki ng t he s i z e of t he hi ghe s t a nd l ow e s t c l a s s e s t hr ough t he de ve l opm e nt of a l a r ge m i ddl e c l a s s S oc i a l t he or i s t s f r om K a r l M a r x t o B a r r i ngt on M oor e a r gu e t ha t a bi l i t y of a c a pi t a l i s t m i dd l e c l a s s t o or ga ni z e i t s e l f t o oppos e t r a di t i ona l e l i t e s a nd f ur t he r i t s i nt e r e s t s ha s be e n vi t a l t o t he f or m a t i on a nd m a i nt e na nc e o f de m oc r a c i e s a r ound t hr oughout h i s t or y ( A r a t 1988 22 23 ) C a pi t a l i s m a nd t he pl e t hor a of c or por a t i ons i ndus t r i e s uni ons a nd bus i ne s s e s a s s oc i a t e d w i t h m a r ke t e c onom i e s a r e a l s o s a i d t o f os t e r t he di ve r s i t y o f s oc i a l i nt e r e s t s a nd a s s oc i a t i ons ne e de d f or t he de ve l opm e nt of a s t r ong c i vi l s oc i e t y ( L i ps e t 1959 84) E c onom i c m ode r n i z a t i on a nd a hi gh l e ve l of ur ba ni z a t i on a l s o f os t e r t he i nf r a s t r uc t ur e t r a ns por t a t i on a nd c om m uni c a t i on s ys t e m s ne e de d t o bui l d t he b r oa d ne t w or ks of a s s oc i a t i on t ha t de m oc r a t i c c i vi l s oc i e t i e s r e qui r e ( R ue s he m e ye r a nd M a hone y 2000, 1590 ) T r a ns na t i ona l c om pa r a t i ve s t udi e s a nd qua nt i t a t i ve a na l ys i s of de m oc r a t i z i ng s t a t e s s i nc e t he 1950s ha ve c onc l ude d t ha t t he r e i s a hi gh de gr e e o f c or r e l a t i on be t w e e n l e ve l of e c onom i c de ve l opm e nt a nd de gr e e o f de m oc r a c y ( B ur kha r t a nd L e w i s B e c k 1994, 905) R e c e nt s t udi e s how e ve r ha ve c ha l l e nge d t hi s a s s um pt i on. S c hol a r s s uc h a s A r a t a nd G oni c k a nd R os h a na l yz e d l e ve l s of e c on om i c de ve l opm e nt a nd m e a s ur e d s t a ge s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on i n l a r ge num be r s t udi e s a c r os s t i m e T he s e s t udi e s c onc l ude d t ha t a l t hough de m oc r a c y a nd e c onom i c de ve l opm e nt a ppe a r t o be c or r e l a t e d w he n

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68 vi e w e d f r om a s i ngl e poi nt i n t i m e c ha nge s i n e c o nom i c pr os pe r i t y ove r t i m e ha ve l i t t l e i nf l ue nc e on t he s t r e ngt he ni ng or w e a ke ni ng of de m oc r a t i c s t a t e s dur i ng t he s a m e t i m e pe r i od, e s pe c i a l l y i n t he c a s e of de v e l opi ng na t i ons O t he r f a c t or s s uc h a s e f f e c t i ve ne s s of t he gove r nm e nt o r l e ve l o f pol i t i c a l c or r up t i on s e e m t o pl a y a m or e vi t a l r ol e i n m a i nt a i ni ng or e r odi ng de m oc r a c y t ha n e c onom i c gr ow t h ( A r a t 1988 G oni c k a nd R os h 1988) O t he r a ut hor s ha ve poi nt e d out t ha t w hi l e a m or e s t a bl e e c onom y c a n he l p m a i nt a i n a de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e by r e duc i ng publ i c d i s s a t i s f a c t i on a nd c r e a t i ng i nc e nt i ve t o s uppor t t he s t a t e t he s e s a m e c ondi t i ons c a n w o r k t o m a i nt a i n a ut hor i t a r i a n r e gi m e s a nd unde r c ut de m oc r a t i c f o r c e s i f w e a l t h a nd r e s our c e s a r e s uf f i c i e nt l y di s t r i but e d ( P r z e w or s ki a nd L i m ongi 1997, 176 77) T he s e s t udi e s a nd ot he r s ha ve s how n t ha t e c onom i c gr ow t h a nd m a r ke t e c onom i e s w hi l e ge ne r a l l y be ne f i c i a l t o t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s a r e not i n a nd of t he m s e l ve s s uf f i c i e nt t o a c hi e ve de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. E c onom i c c ondi t i ons how e ve r do s e e m t o e xe r c i s e s om e i nf l ue nc e on de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s a nd t r a ns i t i oni ng e l i t e s m us t c r a f t e c onom i c pol i c i e s a nd r e gul a t or y s t r uc t ur e s t ha t s t i m ul a t e f a vor a bl e c ondi t i ons w hi l e l i m i t i ng ne ga t i ve s i de e f f e c t s of e c onom i c gr ow t h. T he a bi l i t y of a t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e t o i nt e r ve ne i n t he m a r ke t i s ne c e s s a r y f or s e ve r a l r e a s ons : f i r s t m a r ke t e c onom i e s c a nnot a r i s e e s pe c i a l l y f r om t he r ui ns of s t a t e c ont r ol l e d e c onom i e s of m a ny a ut hor i t a r i a n r e gi m e s w i t hout s t a t e di r e c t i on a nd s uppor t ( L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1998, 12) O nc e a m or e ope n e c onom y ha s be e n pr oduc e d, i nt e r ve nt i oni s t pol i c i e s a r e s t i l l r e qui r e d t o m a i nt a i n t he m a r ke t T he s t a t e m us t r e gul a t e bus i ne s s pr a c t i c e s pr ovi de a s t a nda r di z a t i on o f w e i ght s a nd m e a s ur e s de t e r m i ne t r a de pol i c i e s a n d e xe c ut e m a ny ot he r ba s i c f unc t i ons t ha t r e qui r e a c ons i s t e nt l e ve l of s t a t e i nvol ve m e nt i n t he m a r ke t S t a t e r e gul a t i on c a n a l s o

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69 e ns ur e t ha t m a r ke t e c onom i e s do not pr oduc e hi gh l e ve l s of e c onom i c di s pa r i t y t hr ough t a x pol i c i e s l a bor l a w s a nd s om e r e di s t r i but i on pr ogr a m s F ur t he r m o r e w hi l e e c onom i c pr os pe r i t y doe s not a l w a ys e nt a i l de m oc r a t i z a t i on, m os t s t udi e s ha ve s how n t ha t t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s a r e e s pe c i a l l y s e ns i t i ve t o t he s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l f a l l out s o f a n e c onom i c c r i s i s S t a t e r e gul a t i ons c a n he l p i ns ul a t e t he m a r ke t f r om s e ve r e a nd s udde n dow nt ur ns m a i nt a i ni ng t he e c onom i c w e l l be i ng of s oc i e t y a nd i t s c ont i nue d s t a ke i n s uppor t i ng t he de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e ( H a gga r d a nd W e bb 1993, 152 5 3) A l t hough t he l e ve l o f m a r ke t r e gul a t i on a nd t he e xa c t de s i gn of e c onom i c pol i c i e s ne e de d t o f a c i l i t a t e de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on va r i e s f r om c a s e t o c a s e i t i s c l e a r t ha t t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s m us t e s t a bl i s h s om e de gr e e of m a r ke t i nt e r ve nt i on E c ono m i c s oc i e t y, how e ve r m us t w or k t o de f i ne t he l i m i t s a nd bounda r i e s of s t a t e i n t e r ve nt i on a nd pr om ot e t he r i ght s of c e r t a i n e c onom i c s e c t or s I f s t a t e i nt e r ve nt i on i n t he m a r ke t goe s t oo f a r t he n t he e c onom y w i l l not e nj oy t he de g r e e of a ut onom y d i ve r s i t y of i nt e r e s t s a nd r e s our c e s ne e de d t o ge ne r a t e a de m oc r a t i c c i vi l s oc i e t y ( P r z e w or s ki 1991 131 ) A hi gh de gr e e of s t a t e ow ne r s hi p of t he e c onom y a l s o pr e ve nt s pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y f r om r e m a i ni ng a ut onom ous t he r e by s e ve r e l y da m a gi ng pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on ( L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1998 12 ) E l i t e s m us t c r a f t p r oc e dur e s a nd nor m s f or m a r ke t i nt e r ve nt i on e ve n a s t he y e na c t m uc h ne e de d e c onom i c r e f o r m s A vi t a l c om pone nt of e c onom i c s oc i e t y i n de m oc r a t i c s t a t e s i s t he r e pr e s e nt a t i on of c e r t a i n e c ono m i c i nt e r e s t s i n t he de c i s i on m a ki ng p r oc e s s e s of m a r ke t po l i c i e s E na c t i ng t he ki nd of d r a s t i c e c onom i c r e f o r m s a nd p r ogr a m s t ha t of t e n a c c om pa ny pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on i s a di f f i c ul t a nd pa i nf ul pr oc e s s t ha t c a n a dve r s e l y a f f e c t m a ny s e gm e nt s of t he p opul a t i on. T he e c onom i c s oc i e t y of t r a ns i t i on i ng s t a t e s m us t i nc l ude nor m s o f

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70 m a r ke t r e gul a t i on t ha t pr e ve nt a bus e s of s t a t e pow e r i n t h i s a r e na a s w e l l a s a ve nue s of r e pr e s e nt a t i on or e m pow e r m e nt f or popul a t i ons a f f e c t e d by c e r t a i n e c onom i c pol i c i e s T h e s e m e c ha ni s m s of m e c ha ni s m s of r e pr e s e nt a t i on a nd r e gul a t i on of t e n c om e i n t he f or m o f c i vi l s oc i e t y or ga ni z a t i ons but c a n a l s o i n c l ude a l i m i t e d o r c ont r ol l e d r o l e f o r s pe c i a l i nt e r e s t s i n pol i c y de s i gn a nd e f f e c t i ve e l e c t or a l pr oc e s s e s t ha t a l l ow publ i c di s s a t i s f a c t i on or a ppr ova l of e c onom i c r e f o r m s t o be a c c ur a t e l y r e pr e s e nt e d ( P r z e w or s ki 1991, 162) A l t hough c ont e m por a r y s c hol a r s ha ve s how n t ha t e c onom i c de ve l opm e nt a nd f r e e m a r ke t s a r e not t he m os t s i gni f i c a nt f or c e be hi nd s uc c e s s f ul de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons e c onom i c c ondi t i ons a nd pol i c y de s i gns a r e s t i l l a c r uc i a l a s pe c t i n t he c ons ol i da t i on o f de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s T he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt m us t w or k t o s t i m ul a t e e c onom i c g r ow t h a nd di ve r s i f i c a t i on w hi l e a l s o c r a f t i ng no r m s pr oc e dur e s a nd i ns t i t ut i o ns t o r e gul a t e t he m a r ke t D e m oc r a t i z a t i on i s hi ghl y unl i ke l y w i t hou t s om e de gr e e of m a r ke t i nt e r ve nt i on, but t hi s m us t be c ont r ol l e d a nd l i m i t e d A n e f f e c t i ve e c onom i c s oc i e t y w i l l a l l ow t he s t a t e t o e a s e c l a s s di vi s i ons a nd i ne qua l i t i e s buf f e r t he e c o nom y f r om c r i s e s a nd a i d i n t he de ve l opm e nt of c r uc i a l e c onom i c s e c t or s A t t he s a m e t i m e t he e c onom i c s oc i e t y m us t i nc l ude w a ys i n w hi c h l a bo r bus i ne s s e s a nd ot he r e c onom i c i nt e r e s t s c a n r e p r e s e nt t he m s e l ve s a nd pl a y s om e pa r t i n t he de s i gn of m a r ke t r e f o r m s a nd e c onom i c pol i c y. E c on om i c S oc i e t y i n I n d i a an d P ak i s t an B r i t i s h gove r na nc e br ought m ode r ni z a t i on, i ndus t r i a l i z a t i on, a nd a c a pi t a l i s t e c onom y. T he s e e c onom i c t r a ns f or m a t i ons l e d t o t he de ve l opm e nt of a s ubs t a nt i a l m i ddl e c l a s s i n I ndi a n s oc i e t y t ha t i nc l ude d m e r c h a nt s ba nke r s f a c t or y ow ne r s a nd

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71 bus i ne s s m e n, l a w ye r s a nd ot he r pr of e s s i ona l s T h e m i ddl e c l a s s t ha t e m e r ge d du r i ng c ol oni a l r ul e c ons i s t e d pr i m a r i l y of H i ndus a nd t h e M us l i m popul a t i on of I ndi a r e m a i ne d l a r ge l y i m pove r i s he d. T h i s e c onom i c di s pa r i t y w a s e s pe c i a l l y pr onounc e d i n t he pr ovi nc e s t ha t w oul d f or m P a ki s t a n, a nd w oul d l e a d t o a n e c onom i c c r i s i s f ol l ow i ng i nde pe nde nc e a nd pa r t i t i on. B ot h I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n qui c kl y i ni t i a t e d e c onom i c r e f o r m s a nd m a r ke t r e gul a t i ons T he d e gr e e o f s t a t e i nt e r v e nt i on i n t he e c onom y a nd t he w a ys i n w hi c h s uc h pol i c i e s w e r e i m pl e m e nt e d di f f e r e d g r e a t l y i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n, a nd l e d t o va s t l y di f f e r e nt ou t c om e s T he pr ovi nc e s t ha t be c a m e P a ki s t a n w e r e pr of i t a bl e a gr i c ul t ur a l a r e a s gr ow i ng s t a pl e pr oduc t s a s w e l l a s c a s h c r ops s uc h a s j ut e a nd c ot t on. B ut t he f a c t or i e s a nd m i l l s us e d t o r e f i ne t he s e c r ops w e r e l oc a t e d a l m os t e xc l us i ve l y i n I ndi a T he i ndus t r i a l a nd m e r c a nt i l e s e c t or s i n pr e pa r t i t i on P a ki s t a n w e r e l a r ge l y ow ne d a nd ope r a t e d by H i ndus a nd S i khs w ho f l e d t o I ndi a a f t e r i nde pe nde nc e ( C or br i dge a nd H a r r i s 2000 14 15 ) T he out br e a k of hos t i l i t i e s be t w e e n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n ove r t he pr i nc e l y s t a t e of J a m m u K a s hm i r l e d I ndi a t o c ut t r a de r e l a t i ons w i t h P a ki s t a n. I n a ddi t i on t h e por t i on of t he c ol oni a l t r e a s ur y a l l ot t e d t o P a ki s t a n i n t he pa r t i t i o n a gr e e m e nt w a s he l d by I ndi a l e a vi ng P a ki s t a n w i t h a l m os t no f unds ( B a xt e r 1995 43 ) A l t hough t he I nd i a n e c onom y w a s f a r m or e di ve r s e a nd e nj oye d t he be ne f i t of a m i ddl e c l a s s t he r e s t i l l r e m a i ne d m a ny pr obl e m s w i t h e c onom i c l i f e i n ne w l y i nde pe nde nt I ndi a T he m a r ke t t ha t de ve l ope d dur i ng t he c ol oni a l e r a w a s gui de d by t he B r i t i s h t o s e r ve t he i r ow n e c onom i c pur pos e s F or m os t o f t he c ol oni a l pe r i od t he I ndi a n e c onom y w a s gui de d by l a i s s e z f a i r e pol i c i e s a nd pr oduc e d m a i nl y c ons um e r goods ( K a pi l a 199 0, 28 29 ) A l t hough I ndi a e nj oye d a gr e a t e r i ndus t r i a l c a pa c i t y a s w e l l a s m or e c a pi t a l a nd na t ur a l r e s our c e s c om pa r e d t o

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72 P a ki s t a n, bot h na t i ons w e r e f a c e d w i t h t he t a s k of de s i gni ng pol i c i e s a nd pr ogr a m s t o e ns ur e e c onom i c gr ow t h. U nde r t he l e a de r s hi p of N e hr u, t he c ons t i t ue nt a s s e m bl y e ns hr i ne d a c om m i t m e nt t o s oc i a l i s m i n t he gui d i ng pr i nc i pl e s s e c t i on of t he c ons t i t ut i on. N e hr u a nd C ongr e s s l e a de r s s a w t he ne c e s s i t y of m a r ke t e c onom i e s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on, how e ve r a nd s oc i a l i s t e c onom i c pol i c i e s w e r e ge a r e d t ow a r ds e l i m i na t i ng pove r t y a nd m ode r ni z i ng t he e c onom y r a t he r t ha n e s t a bl i s hi ng c om pl e t e s t a t e c ont r ol N e hr u a nd hi s s uppor t e r s i n t he I N C be l i e ve d t ha t s t r ong s o c i a l pr ogr a m s a nd s t a t e i nt e r ve nt i on i n t he m a r ke t c oul d e ns ur e e c onom i c m ode r ni z a t i on a nd e a s e t he e c onom i c di s pa r i t i e s w hi c h he be l i e ve d w e r e t he r oot of c om m una l t e ns i ons i n I n di a ( P a r e kh 1991, 37 38 ) T he gui de l i ne s f or s t a t e i nt e r ve nt i on i n t he m a r k e t w e r e out l i ne d i n t he I ndus t r i a l P ol i c y R e s ol ut i on A c t of 1946 w hi c h s pe c i f i e d t he i ndus t r i e s unde r e xc l us i ve s t a t e c ont r ol t he m a r ke t s e c t or s t ha t ne e de d t o be de ve l ope d unde r s t a t e r e gul a t i ons a s w e l l a s c ont r ol s a nd r e gul a t i ons on f o r e i gn i nve s t m e nt ( H a r dgr a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993, 356 U nde r t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt of P a ki s t a n, e c ono m i c pol i c y w a s de l e ga t e d t o t he P l a nni ng C om m i s s i on. U nl i ke I ndi a how e ve r t he r e e xi s t e d no gui de l i ne s or pr i nc i pl e s t o e s t a bl i s h t he e xt e nt of s t a t e i nt e r ve nt i oni s t pol i c i e s P l a nni ng a nd i m pl e m e nt a t i on of t he s e pol i c i e s di d not i nc l ude r e pr e s e nt a t i ve s f r om a f f e c t e d e c onom i c s e c t or s a nd t he gove r nm e nt w a s una bl e t o i nve s t a s hi gh a m ount s of m one y i n t he s e pr ogr a m s a s I ndi a ( B e c ke r 1995, 209 ) F u r t he r m or e t he c or r upt i o n a nd f a c t i ona l i s m t ha t p l a gue d t he L e a gue dur i ng P a ki s t a n s f or m a t i ve ye a r s m a de a g r e e m e nt on a nd i m pl e m e nt a t i on of e c onom i c pol i c i e s di f f i c ul t

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73 S t at e A p p ar at u s I t goe s w i t hout s a yi ng t ha t t r a ns i t i ons t o de m oc r a c y r e qui r e a f unc t i ona l s t a t e a ppa r a t us M ode r n de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s m us t p r ot e c t r i ght s a nd f r e e dom s f o r a l l c i t i z e ns a nd a r e of t e n c a l l e d upon t o pr ovi de ba s i c ne e ds a nd s e r vi c e s t o t he popul a t i on F ur t he r m or e de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i s hi ghl y u nl i ke l y i f t he s t a t e l a c ks a m onopol y on t he us e of f o r c e w i t hi n i t s ow n t e r r i t o r y. T o a c c om pl i s h a l l t he s e t a s ks t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s r e qui r e l a r ge a nd e f f e c t i ve bur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a s w e l l a s s ki l l e d a nd di s c i pl i ne d f unc t i ona r i e s t o r un t he m ( L i nz a nd S t e pa n 1998, 11 ) I n m a ny c a s e s how e ve r t he r e gi m e c ha nge a s s oc i a t e d w i t h t r a ns i t i ons t o de m oc r a c y a l s o r e qui r e s e xt e ns i ve s t a t e bui l di ng pr ogr a m s I nt e r i m gove r n m e nt s of t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s of t e n l a c k us a bl e bur e a uc r a c i e s i f t he pr e vi ous r e gi m e l a c ke d s uc h i ns t i t ut i ons or i f t he i r de s i gn i s not a m e na bl e f or de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m s of gove r na nc e E ve n i f a f or m e r r e gi m e l e f t i n t a c t a nd e f f i c i e nt s t a t e i ns t i t ut i ons i n pl a c e de m oc r a t i c e l i t e s m us t c hoos e t o e i t he r r e pl a c e t he e xpe r i e nc e d bur e a uc r a t s w i t h i ne xpe r i e nc e d de m o c r a t s or ke e p bur e a uc r a t i c r ol e s f i l l e d by m e m be r s of t he ol d r e gi m e I n e i t he r c a s e i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt s a r e o f t e n f a c e d w i t h t he t a s k of r e de s i gni ng or r e bui l di ng a s t a t e a ppa r a t us t ha t w i l l a l l ow a c ons ol i da t e d de m oc r a c y t o gove r n e f f i c i e nt l y T he s i z e e f f e c t i ve ne s s a nd c om pl e xi t y of t he bur e a uc r a c y de s i gne d or r e s t r uc t ur e d by t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt of a t r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e w i l l ha ve a pr of ound e f f e c t on t ha t s t a t e s pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. T r a ns i t i oni ng s t a t e s r e qui r e m o r e t ha n a f unc t i ona l s t a t e a ppa r a t us how e ve r a nd t he s t r uc t ur e a nd c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of t he bur e a uc r a c y m us t m e e t c e r t a i n qua l i t i e s i n o r de r t o pr e ve nt t he s t a l l i ng or r e ve r s a l of t he

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74 de m oc r a t i z a t i on pr oc e s s B ur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n a de m oc r a t i c s t a t e m us t i m pa r t i a l l y a s s i gn pos i t i ons a nd pr om ot e i ndi vi dua l s on t he ba s i s of t he i r s ki l l a nd e xpe r i e nc e ; t he ope r a t i ons of t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons m us t f ol l ow e s t a bl i s he d pr oc e dur e s a nd gui de l i ne s f or de c i s i on m a ki ng; a nd t he r ol e s a nd a ut hor i t y of bu r e a uc r a t i c pos i t i ons m us t be c l e a r l y de f i ne d ( B a c k a nd H a de ni us 2008, 2) M os t i m por t a nt l y bur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons m us t be hi ghl y a ut onom ous f r om pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y, e xe r c i s i ng a s i gni f i c a nt de gr e e of c ont r ol ove r t he i r ow n ope r a t i ons a nd f i l l i ng pos i t i ons ba s e d on pr of e s s i ona l m e r i t r a t he r t ha n e l e c t or a l c om pe t i t i on. T hi s qua l i t y of bur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i o ns vi e w e d a s e s s e nt i a l by t he or i s t s a s e a r l y a s M a x W e be r ha s ge ne r a t e d a l a r ge body of c r i t i que by de m oc r a c y s c hol a r s A l t hough a l a r ge i nde pe nde nt bur e a uc r a c y i s vi t a l f or t he gove r na nc e of a s t a t e t he r e m ova l of t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons f r om a n e l e c t or a l pr oc e s s or s i gni f i c a nt ove r s i ght by e l e c t e d of f i c i a l s i s s e e n a s pr obl e m a t i c a nd po t e nt i a l l y t hr e a t e ni ng t o de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s by m a ny s c hol a r s T he de c i de dl y unde m oc r a t i c na t ur e of s uc h a pow e r f ul c om pone nt o f t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt c a n a l l ow f or a bus e s of p ow e r c or r upt i on, a nd i ne f f i c i e nc y due t o t he a bs e nc e of gove r nm e nt a l ove r s i ght o r publ i c a c c ount a bi l i t y t ha t r e gul a t e s t he be ha vi or of e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s ( E t z i oni H a l e vy 1985, 90 91) D e s pi t e t he s e c onc e r ns m os t s c hol a r s a gr e e t ha t a pow e r f ul a nd hi ghl y a ut onom ous bur e a uc r a c y i s ne c e s s a r y f or t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt a nd m a i nt e na nc e of a de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e T he a s s i gnm e nt of pos i t i ons w i t hi n a bur e a uc r a c y on t he ba s i s of pr of e s s i ona l m e r i t r a t he r t ha n e l e c t or a l pol i t i c s i s ne e de d t o e ns ur e t he e f f i c i e nc y of t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons I n t he or y t hi s pr oc e s s a l l ow s f or t he obj e c t i ve a s s i gnm e nt of pos t s a nd e ns ur e s t ha t of f i c i a l s w i l l pe r f or m t he i r dut i e s i m pa r t i a l l y. B ur e a uc r a t i c a ut onom y i s r e qui r e d t o e ns u r e t ha t s t a t e i ns t i t ut i ons do not be c om e pol i t i c i z e d. T he a bi l i t y of t he gove r nm e nt t o a s s i gn r ol e s t e r m i na t e o f f i c i a l s or

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75 de f i ne t he a ut hor i t y of bur e a uc r a t i c pos i t i ons o f t e n l e a ds t o t he c r e a t i on of pa t r ona ge ne t w or ks by pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a nd r e nt s e e k i ng be ha vi or t ha t i nhi bi t s t he i m pa r t i a l i t y a nd e f f e c t i ve ne s s of bur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons ( B a c k a n d H a de ni us 2008, 4 ) T he l os s of bur e a uc r a t i c i nde pe nde nc e i s hi ghl y l i ke l y dur i ng de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons a s e m e r gi ng pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s de s pe r a t e t o c ons o l i da t e pow e r a t t e m pt t o e ns ur e t he l oya l t y a nd s uppor t of va r i ous s t a t e or ga ns t ha t t he pa r t i e s a r e a c t i ve l y de s i gni ng a nd c ons t r uc t i ng ( H yne m a n 1950, 77) A l t hough t he na t ur e of b ur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i s of t e n f unda m e nt a l l y unde m oc r a t i c t he r e a r e w a y s i n w hi c h s uc h i ns t i t u t i ons c a n be de s i gne d t ha t w i l l a l l e vi a t e s om e of t he po t e nt i a l t hr e a t s t o de m oc r a t i c gove r na nc e S t a t e i ns t i t ut i ons w he t he r de m oc r a t i c a l l y e l e c t e d or not a r e s t i l l gov e r ne d by a s e t o f nor m s va l ue s a nd e s t a bl i s he d pr oc e dur e s B ur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons c a n be e s t a bl i s he d on va l ue s of t r a ns pa r e nc y a nd pr of e s s i ona l i s m t ha t w i l l gr e a t l y c ons t r a i n t he a c t i ons of s t a t e o f f i c i a l s ( E t z i oni H a l e vy 1985 85 86 ) I f t he c om m a nd hi e r a r c hy of bu r e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i s c l e a r l y de f i ne d a n d a ut ho r i t y i s a l s o hor i z ont a l l y d i vi de d a nd c om pa r t m e nt a l i z e d, t he n t he c ha nc e s f or a bus e s of pow e r a r e l e s s e ne d t hr ough l i m i t s c he c ks a nd ba l a nc e s on a ut hor i t y. A l t hough bu r e a uc r a t i c i nde pe nde nc e m us t be e ns ur e d, t he pow e r of t he s e s t a t e bodi e s c a n be de f i ne d, a nd m e c ha ni s m s of e nf o r c e m e nt c a n be put i n t he ha nds of t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt ( H yne m a n 1950, 98) B ur e a uc r a t i c a ge nc i e s c a n a l s o be s ubj e c t t o a de gr e e of publ i c a c c ount a bi l i t y i f r e l e va nt pub i c i n t e r e s t s a nd a f f e c t e d gr oups a r e i nvol ve d i n t he de s i gn a nd i m pl e m e nt a t i on of p r og r a m s i ni t i a t e d by bur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons P ubl i c i nvol ve m e nt i n t he ope r a t i ons o f t he s t a t e a ppa r a t us a l l ow s f o r c i t i z e n i nf l ue nc e a nd t he oppo r t uni t y f or publ i c a s s e s s m e n t a nd r e vi e w

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76 B ur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a r e a v i t a l c om pone nt o f m ode r n gove r na nc e e s pe c i a l l y i n de m oc r a c i e s T he c ons t r uc t i on o r r e bui l di ng o f t he s t a t e a ppa r a t us by i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt s dur i ng de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons i s e s s e nt i a l t o t he c ons ol i da t i on of t he ne w r e gi m e but t hi s pr oc e s s i s f r a ught w i t h r i s ks B ur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons m us t be i nde pe nde nt a nd de pol i t i c i z e d t o r e m a i n i m pa r t i a l a nd e f f e c t i ve A t t he s a m e t i m e l i m i t s m us t be pl a c e d on bu r e a uc r a t i c pow e r a nd m e c ha ni s m s of s t a t e a nd publ i c a c c ount a bi l i t y m us t be c ons t r uc t e d. A f unc t i ona l s t a t e a ppa r a t us w i t h s uc h m e a s ur e s i n pl a c e a nd gui de d by i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d va l ue s of i m pa r t i a l i t y, p r of e s s i ona l i s m a nd t r a ns pa r e nc y w i l l go a l ong w a y i n e ns ur i ng t ha t t he t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s i s c om pl e t e d. S t at e A p p ar at u s i n I n d i a an d P ak i s t an O ne of t he m os t pr om i ne nt f e a t ur e s of B r i t i s h r ul e i n I ndi a w a s t he I ndi a n C i vi l S e r vi c e t he bur e a uc r a t i c a nd a dm i ni s t r a t i ve s ys t e m t ha t s e r ve d a s t he S t e e l F r a m e o f B r i t i s h c ol oni a l r ul e C i vi l s oc i e t y or ga ni z a t i ons a nd pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s w i t hi n I ndi a ha d s uc c e s s f ul l y pus he d f or pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on dur i ng t he R a j a nd by t he t i m e o f i nde pe nde nc e m os t I C S pos t s w e r e f i l l e d by I ndi a ns ( P a l m e r 1971 49 50) A s i n ot he r a r e a s of t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt m os t of t he s e c i v i l s e r va nt s w e r e H i ndu, l e a vi ng I ndi a s bur e a uc r a c y w i t h a hi gh de gr e e of c a pa c i t y w hi l e P a ki s t a n w a s f or c e d t o r e bui l d i t s c i vi l s e r vi c e I n a ddi t i on, P a ki s t a n w oul d f a c e a hos t o f c r i s e s t ha t w oul d t a x t he ne w na t i on s a l r e a dy w e a ke ne d s t a t e a ppa r a t us O f t he 1 157 I ndi a n m e m be r s o f t h e I C S ni ne t y f i ve of t he 101 M us l i m m e m be r s c hos e t o go t o P a ki s t a n A l t hough t he s e of f i c e r s w e r e j oi ne d by a s m a l l c a dr e o f B r i t i s h bur e a uc r a t s no m e m be r of P a ki s t a n s i ni t i a l bur e a uc r a c y ha d s e r ve d l onge r t ha n f i f t e e n

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77 ye a r s a nd m os t ha d l e s s t ha n t e n ye a r s of e xpe r i e n c e ( B a xt e r 1995, 37) T he P a ki s t a ni bur e a uc r a c y w a s s oon f a c e d w i t h a da unt i ng a r r a y of c ha l l e nge s i nc l udi ng t he e c onom i c c r i s i s t ha t e ngul f e d t he ne w na t i on f ol l ow i ng i nde p e nde nc e a nd t he w a r w i t h I ndi a a s w e l l a s a m a s s i ve r e f uge e c r i s i s B y t he t i m e t he c om m una l vi ol e nc e of pa r t i t i on ha d a ba t e d, ne a r l y one f i f t h of t he popul a t i on of W e s t P a ki s t a n w e r e r e f uge e s ( S a ye e d 1967 63 64) T o f a c e t he s e c ha l l e nge s t he s m a l l s t a t e a ppa r a t us l e f t t o P a ki s t a n by pa r t i t i on w a s r a pi dl y e xpa nde d by t e m po r a r i l y l ow e r i ng t he r e qui r e m e nt s f or va r i ous pos i t i ons a nd pl a c i ng m i l i t a r y of f i c e r s a nd f or c e s unde r bur e a uc r a t i c c ont r ol t o w or k on c r i s i s r e l i e f a nd s t a t e bui l di ng pr oj e c t s A f t e r t he s e i ni t i a l m e a s ur e s t ook e f f e c t t he C i vi l S e r vi c e o f P a ki s t a n qui c kl y r e t ur ne d t o t he s a m e pr of e s s i ona l i s m a nd w e l l e s t a bl i s he d pr oc e dur e s a nd l e ve l s of a ut hor i t y t ha t c ha r a c t e r i z e d t he B r i t i s h a dm i ni s t r a t i on. T he P a ki s t a ni bur e a uc r a c y w a s a l s o a bl e t o m a i nt a i n a hi gh l e ve l of a ut onom y i n r e l a t i on t o po l i t i c a l e l i t e r e m a i ni ng out s i de t he c ont r ol o f t he L e a gue a nd ot he r pa r t i e s T he e f f i c i e nc y a nd popul a r i t y of t he bu r e a uc r a c y i n i nde pe nde nt P a ki s t a n f a r e xc e e de d t ha t of pol i t i c i a ns a nd, a l t hough s t a t e i ns t i t ut i ons r e m a i ne d f r e e of pa t r ona ge ne t w or ks a nd c or r up t i on, t he bur e a uc r a c y w oul d be c om e a pow e r f ul pol i t i c a l f o r c e M e m be r s o f t he bu r e a uc r a c y w e r e of t e n i nc l ude d i n t he l e gi s l a t i ve p r oc e s s l e ndi ng t h e i r e xpe r t i s e t o t he de s i gn of va r i ous pr ogr a m s M a ny c i vi l s e r va nt s a l s o e nt e r e d t he pol i t i c a l a r e na us i ng t he i r ba c kgr ound a s f or m e r bu r e a uc r a t s t o e ns ur e publ i c s uppor t ( B e c ke r 1995, 201 03) T he l a r ge l y i nt a c t bur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons of i nde pe nde nt I ndi a w e r e a l s o a bl e t o m a i nt a i n t he i r e f f i c i e nc y a nd p r of e s s i ona l i s m a nd w e r e i ns t r um e nt a l i n i m pl e m e n t i ng t he I N C s va r i ous s t a t e bui l di ng p r oj e c t s a nd e c onom i c r e f or m s T he I C S be c a m e t he I ndi a n A dm i ni s t r a t i ve S e r vi c e s a nd ove r s a w t he g r ow t h a nd e xpa ns i on of I n di a s bur e a uc r a c y.

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78 T he I ndi a n bur e a uc r a c y w a s ne ve r a f or c e i n pol i c y f or m a t i on or a n a ve nue t o publ i c of f i c e l i ke i t s c ount e r pa r t i n P a ki s t a n, how e ve r a s t he pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s of t he R e publ i c e nj oye d gr e a t e r publ i c s uppor t a nd w e r e vi e w e d a s e f f i c i e nt du r i ng t he e a r l y ye a r s o f i nde pe nde nc e ( R obb 2002, 208 09) T he e a r l y I nd i a n bur e a uc r a c y a l s o i nc l ude d t ow n c ounc i l s P a nc ha ya t s a nd c i vi l s oc i e t y gr oups f r om r e l e va nt a r e a s of t he popul a t i on i n t he i m pl e m e nt a t i on pr oc e s s of m a ny pr ogr a m s e s pe c i a l l y a i d a nd r ur a l de ve l opm e nt T he P a ki s t a ni C i vi l S e r vi c e i n c ont r a s t w or ke d w i t h t r a di t i ona l a r i s t o c r a t s a nd r u r a l l a ndow ne r s ( B ur ki 1969 328 9 ) A l t hough t he I A S r e t a i ne d c l e a r a nd s t a nda r di z e d pr oc e dur e s a s s i gne d or pr om ot e d i ndi vi dua l s t o po s t s on t he ba s i s of s ki l l a nd m a i nt a i ne d pol i t i c a l i m pa r t i a l i t y du r i ng t he I ndi a s f or m a t i ve ye a r s t he a ut onom y of t he bur e a uc r a c y w a s not gua r a nt e e d. T he f e de r a l gove r nm e nt a nd s t a t e gove r nm e nt s t hr ough i ndi r e c t l y e l e c t e d m i ni s t e r s ha d a s i gni f i c a nt de gr e e of c ont r ol ove r t r a ns f e r s a nd a ppoi nt m e nt s i n va r i ous bur e a uc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons P ol i t i c a l i nt e r f e r e nc e w oul d l e a d t o i nc r e a s i ng c or r upt i on i n de c a de s t o c om e t ha t w oul d gr e a t l y unde r m i ne t he e f f e c t i ve ne s s of t he I ndi a n bur e a uc r a c y ( H a r dgr a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993, 94 95)

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79 C on c l u s i o n s A f t e r a ppl yi ng t he or i e s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on t o e m pi r i c a l e vi de nc e f r om ne w l y i nde pe nde nt I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n, i t i s c l e a r t ha t pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i n bot h s t a t e s w e r e va s t l y une qua l I ndi a i nhe r i t e d a gr e a t e r s ha r e of t he c ol oni a l bur e a uc r a c y, a nd m o r e e xpe r i e nc e d c i vi l s e r va nt s T he e c onom y of I ndi a w a s f a r m or e s t a bl e a nd di ve r s e a nd e a r l y e c onom i c pol i c i e s i nc l ude d r e pr e s e nt a t i ve s f r om a f f e c t e d s e c t or s of t he m a r ke t M os t P a ki s t a n s e c onom i c e l i t e a s w e l l a s m os t of i t s m a nuf a c t ur i ng a nd i ndus t r i a l c e nt e r s w e nt t o I ndi a dur i ng pa r t i t i on a nd a n e c onom i c c r i s i s qui c kl y de ve l ope d. I ndi a a l s o i nhe r i t e d a r e l a t i ve l y unda m a ge d s ys t e m of c our t s a nd a hi ghe r nu m be r o f j udge s l a w ye r s a nd l e ga l f unc t i ona r i e s U nl i ke I ndi a t he j udi c i a r y i n P a ki s t a n w a s qui c kl y pol i t i c i z e d, a nd a c ons t i t ut i ona l f r a m e w o r k w a s not r e s pe c t e d by pol i t i c a l e l i t e s I ndi a n c i vi l s oc i e t y w a s s t r onge r a nd m or e de m oc r a t i c i n na t ur e t ha n i n P a ki s t a n, a nd t he I ndi a n C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y qui c kl y pa s s e d l a w s e s t a bl i s hi ng f r e e dom s of a s s e m bl y, pr e s s a nd s pe e c h. C i vi l s oc i e t y i n P a k i s t a n l a c ke d t he br e a dt h of a s s oc i a t i ona l ne t w or ks a nd w a s i m m e di a t e l y s ubj e c t e d t o r e pr e s s i ve l a w s a nd pol i t i c i z e d. P e r ha ps m os t i m por t a nt l y t he P ol i t i c a l s oc i e t y of I ndi a w a s e xpe r i e nc e d, di s c i pl i ne d a nd de vot e d t o de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s a nd pr oc e dur e s T he p ol i t i c a l e l i t e s o f P a ki s t a n, i n c ont r a s t l a c ke d t he s a m e l e ve l s of pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng, publ i c s uppor t a nd f a i t h i n de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons T he c ha r t on t he f ol l ow i ng pa ge s how s t ha t m os t of t he vi t a l pol i t i c a l s oc i a l l e ga l a nd e c onom i c c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s ne c e s s a r y f or a c hi e vi ng de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on w e r e pr e s e nt i n I ndi a but a bs e nt i n P a ki s t a n.

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80 T ab l e 2. 1 I n d i a a n d P ak i s t an at I n d e p e n d e n c e : T h e F i ve A r e n as D E M O C R A T I C A R E N A V I T A L A T T R I B U T E S I N D I A P A KI S T A N A ut onom ous C om pe t i t i ve E l e c t i ons D e m oc r a t i c P r oc e dur e s / V a l ue s D i vi s i o ns of P ow e r P ol i t i c al S oc i e t y E s t a bl i s he d a nd V a l ue d P a r t i e s / E l i t e s R e l a t i ve l y A ut onom ous P r ot e c t i ons A ga i ns t S t a t e I nt e r f e r e nc e B r oa d A s s oc i a t i ona l N e t w or ks L a c k of V e r t i c a l D i vi s i ons C i vi l S oc i e t y A bi l i t y t o I nf l ue nc e P ub l i c P ol i c y G u a r a nt e e s R i ght s a nd F r e e dom s P ol i t i c a l E qua l i t i e s P ow e r S ha r i ng A r r a nge m e nt s I nde pe nde nt J udi c i a r y R u l e of L aw L e ga l H ur dl e s t o A m e ndm e nt s / R e vi s i on S t a bl e E c onom y E s t a bl i s he d P r oc e dur e s a nd L i m i t s on S t a t e I nt e r ve nt i on L a c k of E xt r e m e E c onom i c D i s pa r i t y R e pr e s e nt a t i on of R e l e va nt S e c t or s i n P o l i c y F or m a t i on E c on om i c S oc i e t y S a f e t y N e t s A ga i ns t E c onom i c D ow nt ur n U s e a bl e B ur e a uc r a c y A ut onom ous P r of e s s i ona l i s m S t at e A p p ar at u s T r a n s pa r e nc y a nd P ubl i c A c c ount a bi l i t y

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81 A l t hough pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on w e r e m a r ke dl y une qua l i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n upon i nde pe nde nc e i n 1947, t he s e une ve n s t a r t i ng poi nt s i n a nd of t he m s e l ve s w oul d not e ns ur e de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i n I ndi a or i t s f a i l ur e i n P a ki s t a n. M a ny c a s e s of s uc c e s s f ul t r a ns i t i ons t ook pl a c e i n t i m e s or c on di t i ons t ha t gr e a t l y c ha l l e nge d t he e f f or t s t o e s t a bl i s h a de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e T he a bi l i t y t o s uc c e s s f ul l y de m oc r a t i z e of t e n l i e s i n t he a bi l i t y of e l i t e s t o c r a f t e f f e c t i ve a nd s t a bl e i ns t i t ut i ons of gove r na nc e t ha t a ddr e s s s oc i a l pol i t i c a l a nd e c onom i c p r obl e m s w hi l e f os t e r i ng t he de ve l opm e nt of c ondi t i ons f a vor a bl e t o de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. F r om t he be gi nni ngs di s c us s e d i n t hi s c ha pt e r de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n w oul d c ont i nue t o e vol ve unt i l t he pr e s e nt da y, a da pt i ng t o ne w c ha l l e nge s r e s pondi ng t o publ i c pr e s s ur e s or a t t i m e s de gr a di ng i nt o a ut ho r i t a r i a ni s m T he di f f e r i ng c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n a t i nde pe nde nc e e s pe c i a l l y i n t he a r e na of pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y, w oul d pl a y a ke y r ol e i n t he ne xt pha s e of t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s a nd t he s ubs e que nt de ve l opm e nt a l t r a j e c t or y of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons

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82 C h ap te r 3: D e mo c r ati z at i on i n I n d i a A l t hough t he I nd i a n t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s w a s gr e a t l y a i de d by a r a nge of f a vor a bl e pol i t i c a l s oc i a l a nd e c onom i c c ondi t i ons c ons i de r a bl e obs t a c l e s r e m a i ne d on t he r oa d t o de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. I n a ddi t i on t o t he pr oc e s s of de s i gni ng de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a nd pr oc e dur e s t ha t w oul d r e m a i n s t a bl e a nd e f f e c t i ve t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y w a s a l s o f a c e d w i t h t he t a s k o f uni t i ng I ndi a s e t hni c a l l y, l i ngui s t i c a l l y, a nd s oc i a l l y he t e r oge ne ous popul a t i on unde r a s i ngl e na t i ona l i de nt i t y. T he i ns t i t ut i on s de s i gne d by t he f ounde r s of t he R e publ i c a nd t he e vol ut i ona r y t r a j e c t or y t he s e i ns t i t ut i ons t ook ove r t he pr oc e e di ng de c a de s w oul d e ns ur e de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i n I ndi a T hi s p r oc e s s w a s ne ve r s m oot h or uni f i e d, how e ve r a nd m a ny pr obl e m s e m e r ge d t ha t c ont i nue t o t hr e a t e n de m oc r a c y i n I ndi a unt i l t he p r e s e nt da y. F ou n d i n g t h e N a t i on T he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y of I nd i a w a s c om pos e d of e xpe r i e nc e d, di s c i pl i ne d e l i t e s de di c a t e d t o de m oc r a t i c i de a l s a nd t he t he or e t i c a l gr oundw or k f or t he I ndi a n c ons t i t ut i on ha d be e n l a i d l ong a go by t he I N C F ur t he r m or e t he s t r uc t u r e of t he C ongr e s s pa r t y w a s f unda m e nt a l l y de m oc r a t i c w i t h e l e c t i ons t o l e a de r s hi p pos i t i ons a s w e l l a s s e a t s i n t he pa r t y s s t a t e a nd na t i ona l c ounc i l s de t e r m i ne d t hr ough e l e c t i ons N e ve r t he l e s s t he pr oc e s s of i nt e gr a t i ng t he pa t c hw or k of s oc i a l pol i t i c a l a nd e c onom i c s ys t e m s t ha t c om pr i s e d t he ne w l y de s i gna t e d t e r r i t or y of I ndi a w oul d be a c ons i de r a bl e

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83 c ha l l e nge F ol l ow i ng M ount ba t t e n s r e s i gna t i on a s G ove r nor G e ne r a l of I ndi a N e hr u be c a m e he a d of s t a t e a nd a C ongr e s s dom i na t e d C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y. W i t h t he de pa r t ur e of t he M us l i m L e a gue f or P a ki s t a n f ol l o w i ng i nde pe nde nc e t he I N C w a s l e f t w i t h no m a j o r pol i t i c a l r i va l s on t he na t i ona l l e ve l a nd c om pr i s e d ove r 80 pe r c e nt of t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y ( C or br i dge a nd H a r r i s s 200 0, 23 ) T he unr i va l e d e l e c t or a l dom i na nc e of t he C ongr e s s a l ong w i t h t he br oa d p ubl i c s uppor t e nj oye d by t he pa r t y a nd i t s l e a de r N e hr u, i m bue d t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt w i t h a t r e m e ndous a m ount of pol i t i c a l c a pi t a l T he s e c ondi t i ons f a c i l i t a t e d a qui c k c ons t i t ut i on dr a f t i ng pe r i od a nd a r e l a t i ve l y s t a bl e t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s but w oul d c ons t r a i n t he d e ve l opm e nt of a c om pe t i t i ve pa r t y s ys t e m i n t he f ut ur e A t t he t i m e how e ve r t he gov e r nm e nt s c om m i t m e nt t o de m o c r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s a nd a bi l i t y t o a c t qui c kl y gr e a t l y a i de d t he pr oc e s s of na t i ona l i nt e g r a t i on. I n a ddi t i on t o t he s ubc ont i ne nt s e t hni c r e l i gi ous a nd l i ngui s t i c di ve r s i t y, e c onom i c s ys t e m s a nd s oc i a l hi e r a r c hi e s di f f e r e d m a r ke dl y f r om one r e gi on t o t he ne xt M a ny a r e a s w e r e s t i l l dom i na t e d by l a ndhol di ng a r i s t oc r a t s or e m pow e r e d c a s t e s w ho c ol l e c t e d r e ve nue f or t he gove r nm e nt V i l l a ge c ounc i l s c ont r ol l e d l a nd a nd r e ve nue i n ot he r r e gi ons a nd s om e a r e a s w e r e di v i de d i nt o s m a l l pl ot s of l a nd ow ne d by l ow e r c a s t e c om m uni t i e s ( B a ne r j e e a nd I ye r 2005, 1193 94 ) T he I ndi a n l a nds c a pe w a s a l s o dom i na t e d by 572 P r i nc e l y S t a t e s t ha t ha d r e m a i ne d vi r t ua l l y a ut onom ous t hr oughout B r i t i s h r ul e T he S t a t e s C om m i s s i on of t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y br ought m os t of t he pr i nc e l y s t a t e s i nt o t he R e publ i c t h r ough ne got i a t i ons a nd t he pr om i s e o f s pe c i a l r i ght s a nd pos i t i ons f or t he s e s t a t e s t r a di t i ona l r ul e r s T he ne w s t a t e w a s f or c e d t o r e s or t t o on m i l i t a r y i nt e r ve nt i on a ga i ns t t he r ul e r s of J una ga dh a nd H yde r a ba d, t w o l a r ge P r i nc e l y S t a t e s w i t h H i ndu m a j o r i t y popul a t i ons but

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84 M us l i m r ul e r s F ol l ow i ng t he c a pi t ul a t i on o f t he s e s t a t e s t he i r popul a t i ons w e r e a l l ow e d t o vot e t o j oi n I ndi a i n a pl e bi s c i t e a nd c hos e ove r w he l m i ngl y t o do s o. T he de c i s i on of t he H i ndu r ul e r of t he l a r ge l y M us l i m s t a t e of J a m m u K a s hm i r t o j oi n I nd i a l e d t o ye t a not he r m i l i t a r y i nt e r ve nt i on a s w e l l a s t he f i r s t I n do P a ki s t a ni w a r i n 1948 ( P a l m e r 1971, 96 97 ) I n c om pa r i s on t o t he r e l a t i ve e a s e w i t h w hi c h t he P r i nc e l y S t a t e s w e r e i nt e gr a t e d i nt o t he R e publ i c m a na gi ng I ndi a s e t h ni c l i ngui s t i c a nd r e l i gi ous di ve r s i t y w oul d pr ove m o r e da unt i ng T he f i r s t c ha l l e nge c a m e f r om H i ndu na t i ona l i s t or ga ni z a t i ons a nd pa r t i e s a s w e l l a s c ons e r va t i ve H i ndu e l e m e nt s w i t hi n t he C ongr e s s P a r t y. T he s e gr oups de m a nde d r e t a l i a t i on a ga i ns t M us l i m s f ol l ow i ng t he vi ol e nc e of pa r t i t i on a nd t he y w a nt e d t he ne w na t i on o f I nd i a t o be f ounde d on H i ndu pr i nc i pl e s M a ny pol i t i c i a ns i nc l udi ng m e m be r s of t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y, a dvoc a t e d t he e ns hr i ni ng of H i ndui s m a s t he s t a t e r e l i gi on i n t he c ons t i t ut i on, a nd c r e a t i ng a de c e nt r a l i z e d gove r nm e nt t ha t g r a nt e d pol i t i c a l a ut hor i t y t o vi l l a ge a nd c a s t e c ounc i l s a t t he l oc a l l e ve l M a ny l e a de r s a l s o w a nt e d t he c a s t e hi e r a r c hy t o be e nf o r c e d by t he c ons t i t ut i on a nd l e ga l s ys t e m ( A de ne y a nd W ya t t 2 004, 12 13 ) R e pr e s e nt a t i ve s f r om di f f e r e nt r e gi ons a nd e t hni c i t i e s a l s o de m a nde d a h i gh de gr e e of pol i t i c a l a nd c ul t ur a l a ut onom y, a nd m e m be r s of t he M us l i m m i nor i t y f e a r e d f or t he i r r i ght s a nd f r e e dom s i n a n e nvi r onm e nt of t e n s e c om m una l i s m D e f i n i n g I n d i an N at i on al I d e n t i t y N e hr u a nd t he c or e of I N C l e a de r s hi p s ought t o s ol ve t he s e i s s ue s t hr ough t he c r e a t i on of a uni que f e de r a l s ys t e m a nd t he i m p l e m e nt a t i on of a s e c ul a r i de ol ogy o f

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85 gove r na nc e t ha t w oul d a l s o s e r ve a s a c o r ne r s t one of na t i ona l i de nt i t y. T he s e e f f or t s a r e c l e a r l y vi s i bl e i n t he I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on, w hi c h w a s a dopt e d J a nua r y 26 t h 1950. T he c ons t i t ut i on of I ndi a de f i ne s t he R e publ i c a s s e c ul a r s oc i a l i s t a nd de m oc r a t i c ( G a ngul i 2007, 48 ) a nd c ont a i ns no r e f e r e nc e s t o r e l i gi ous o r c ul t ur a l s ym bol s i n i t s de f i ni t i on o f t he na t i on s t a t e T he I ndi a n c ons t i t ut i on a l l ow s f o r f r e e dom o f r e l i gi ous e xpr e s s i on a nd m a ke s no a t t e m pt t o h i nde r I ndi a s l i ngui s t i c di ve r s i t y t hr ough t he i m pos i t i on o f a na t i ona l l a ngua ge S t a t e s w e r e gr a nt e d a hi gh de gr e e of a ut onom y unde r t he C ons t i t ut i on s f e de r a l s t r uc t ur e a nd t he S t a t e s C o m m i s s i on t ha t i nt e gr a t e d t he P r i nc e l y S t a t e s m e r ge d or di vi de d t he s e a r e a s i nt o ne w s t a t e s ba s e d on e t hni c popul a t i ons T he c om m i t m e nt t o s e c ul a r i s m i n t he C ons t i t ut i on w a s de s i gne d t o a l l ow f o r t he s ur vi va l a nd pr ot e c t i on of I ndi a s va r i ous s ub na t i ona l i de nt i t i e s w hi l e un i t i ng t he m unde r a br oa d, na t i ona l i de nt i t y. T he c ons t i t ut i on a l s o a t t e m pt s t o s of t e n t he s oc i a l di vi s i ons ha r de ne d by B r i t i s h r ul e by p r ovi di ng a ve nue s of upw a r d m obi l i t y a nd s oc i a l i nt e g r a t i on f o r m i nor i t y g r oups T he f r e e dom o f r e l i gi ous a nd l i n gui s t i c e xpr e s s i on e ns hr i ne d i n t he c ons t i t ut i on a nd t he a voi da nc e of c ul t ur a l s ym bol s i n t he de f i ni t i ons of t he r e publ i c a r e a l l a s pe c t s of t he s e c ul a r vi e w of I ndi a n na t i ona l i t y I ndi a s f ounde r s i n pa r t i c ul a r N e hr u, pr ovi de d f ur t he r a r t i c ul a t i ons o f I ndi a n na t i ona l i s m pr i or t o a nd l ong a f t e r i nde pe nde nc e h a d be e n a c hi e ve d t hr ough t he i r w r i t i ngs a nd s pe e c he s T he s e c ul a r vi e w of I nd i a n na t i ona l i de nt i t y a c c or di ng t o t he s e s our c e s c a n be s e e n a s e s s e nt i a l l y t e r r i t or i a l l y ba s e d, w i t h r e f e r e nc e s t o t he na t ur a l be a ut y of t he s ubc ont i ne nt a boundi ng w i t hi n t he pa ge s of N e hr u s m a ny w or ks a nd t he s pe e c he s of I N C l e a de r s P a r t i c ul a r e m pha s i s i s pl a c e d on g e ogr a phi c f e a t ur e s s uc h a s t he G a nge s R i ve r or H i m a l a ya n m ount a i n r a nge s f e a t ur e s t ha t c ut a c r os s s t a t e bounda r i e s ( a nd

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86 t he r e f or e l oc a l i z e d i de nt i t i e s ) uni t i ng I ndi a s m u l t i pl e pe opl e s C ons pi c uous l y l a c ki ng i n t he w or ks of N e hr u a nd h i s c ont e m por a r i e s i s t he s a c r e d va l ue a s c r i be d t o s uc h l a nds c a pe s by va r i ous r e l i gi ous c om m un i t i e s ( M a l i k a nd V a j pe yi 1989 309 10 ) W he n r e l i gi on i s m e nt i one d a t t e nt i on i s pa i d t o e a c h r e l i gi on e qua l l y a nd e m pha s i s i s pl a c e d on t he uni que ne s s of I ndi a s pl u r a l i s t i c a nd s ync r e t i c s oc i e t y ( V a r s hne y 1993, 34) C ons t r uc t i ons of I ndi a n hi s t o r y w e r e c a r e f ul t o pr a i s e t he be ne f i c i a l i nf l ue nc e s a nd c ont r i but i ons t o I ndi a n s oc i e t y of e a c h r e l i gi on a n d a c t s of r e l i gi ous i nt ol e r a nc e a r e of t e n gl os s e d ove r s uc h a s i n N e hr u s f a vor a bl e de s c r i pt i ons of M ughul r ul e ( U pa dhya ya 2008 823 24) A gr e a t de a l o f e m pha s i s i s a l s o pl a c e d o n I ndi a ni z a t i on of f or e i gn c ul t ur e s pe opl e a nd i de ol ogi e s t hr oughout hi s t or y. D e s c r i p t i ons of t he i nt e gr a t i on o f A r ya n, A r a b, J e w i s h, a n d C hr i s t i a n i m m i gr a nt s a nd i nva de r s i nt o t he s oc i a l s ys t e m of hi s t or i c a l I ndi a a r e hi ghl i ght e d t o de m ons t r a t e t he a bi l i t y o f va r i ou s i de nt i t i e s t o uni t e a nd m ut ua l l y pr os pe r ( M a l i k a nd V a j pe yi 1989, 311) T he I N C s pr o m ot i on o f a s e c ul a r na t i ona l i de nt i t y w a s m i r r o r e d i n t he f e de r a l gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e w hi c h pr ovi de s e t hni c a l l y c o ns t r uc t e d s t a t e s w i t h pol i t i c a l a nd c ul t ur a l a ut onom y, w hi l e c r e a t i ng a s t r ong c e nt e r t o m a na ge I ndi a s di ve r s e pol i t y. A l t hough t he a voi da nc e of r e l i gi ous a nd c ul t ur a l m e a ni n gs i n t he c ons t r uc t i on o f I nd i a n na t i ona l i de nt i t y p r e ve nt e d t he a l i e na t i on o f m i nor i t y gr oups t he gove r nm e nt s pol i c y of non i nt e r ve nt i on w i t h t he na t i on s va r i e d s oc i a l s y s t e m s m e a nt t ha t a uni f i e d pol i t i c a l s oc i a l a nd e c onom i c s ys t e m w a s ne ve r de ve l op e d a c r os s I ndi a I n m a ny a r e a s pow e r s t r uc t ur e s a nd s ys t e m s of ow ne r s hi p ba s e d on c a s t e hi e r a r c hi e s r e m a i ne d i n pl a c e qui c kl y be c om i ng i nc or po r a t e d i nt o t he de ve l opi ng ne t w or ks of s t a t e pa t r ona ge w i t hout c ha ngi ng t he i r ba s i c c onf i gu r a t i on ( H a r dgr a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993, 148 49 ) A l t hough

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87 s t a t e a ut onom y w oul d l e a d t o t he pe r pe t ua t i on of t r a di t i ona l pow e r s t r uc t ur e s a nd not i ons of s oc i a l di f f e r e nc e t he c ons t i t ut i on a nd gove r na n c e s t r uc t ur e of I ndi a w a s de vi s e d t o a m e l i or a t e s om e of t he m or e da m a gi ng e f f e c t s o f t he s e s ys t e m s by e m pow e r i ng a l l c i t i z e ns w i t h t he r i ght t o vot e a nd gua r a nt e e s of ba s i c e qua l i t i e s T he e l e c t or a l s ys t e m a nd c onf i gur a t i on of t he s t a t e a nd c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt s w e r e a l s o de s i gne d t o pr ovi de a l l gr oups t he m e a ns of a c hi e vi ng r e gi ona l a n d na t i on a l r e pr e s e nt a t i on. T h e I n d i an C on s t i t u t i on an d G ove r n an c e S t r u c t u r e M a ny of t he ba s i c t e ne t s of t he I nd i a n C ons t i t ut i on a nd t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t u r e i t c r e a t e d ha ve be e n di s c us s e d i n c ha pt e r t w o. T he C ons t i t ut i on c a l l e d f or br oa d a dul t s uf f r a g e r e ga r dl e s s of c a s t e c l a s s or r e l i gi on a nd e s t a bl i s he d t he ba s i c c i vi l r i ght s a nd l i be r t i e s ne c e s s a r y f or a f unc t i ona l de m oc r a c y. T he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt of I ndi a s f e de r a l s ys t e m i s c om pos e d of a w e a k e xe c ut i ve br a nc h, a dua l c ha m be r e d P a r l i a m e nt ba s e d o n B r i t a i n s W e s t m i ns t e r m ode l a nd t he j udi c i a l b r a nc h. T he gove r n m e nt of ne w l y i nde pe nde nt I ndi a a l s o r e s t e d on t he bur e a uc r a t i c a ppa r a t us of t he f or m e r I C S w hi c h be c a m e t he I ndi a n A dm i ni s t r a t i ve S e r vi c e upon i n de pe nde nc e D e s pi t e w ha t a ppe a r s t o be a W e s t e r n ba s i s f or t he de s i gn of t he c ons t i t ut i o n a nd gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e I nd i a n de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a r e di s t i nc t i ve i n m a ny s i gn i f i c a nt w a ys A l t hough t he c ons t i t ut i on pr ovi de s f or s e pa r a t e br a nc he s of gove r nm e nt t o c r e a t e c he c ks a nd ba l a nc e s of pow e r t he r e e xi s t e d a hi gh de g r e e of i nt e r de pe nde nc e be t w e e n t he e xe c ut i ve a nd l e gi s l a t i ve br a nc h. A r t i c l e 53 of t he I ndi a n c ons t i t ut i on s t a t e s t ha t t he E xe c ut i ve pow e r of t he U ni on s ha l l be ve s t e d i n t he P r e s i de nt a nd s ha l l be e xe r c i s e d by hi m e i t he r di r e c t l y

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88 or t hr ough of f i c e r s s ubor di na t e t o hi m i n a c c or da nc e w i t h t hi s c ons t i t ut i on ( P a l m e r 1971, 119) T he P r e s i de nt of I ndi a s e r ve s f or f i ve ye a r t e r m s a nd i s e l e c t e d t h r ough a n E l e c t or a l C ol l e ge s ys t e m t ha t c ons i s t s of bot h hous e s of pa r l i a m e nt a nd a l l t h e s t a t e l e gi s l a t i ve a s s e m bl i e s T he P r e s i de nt of I ndi a s a ut hor i t y a nd pos i t i on vi s vi s t he P a r l i a m e nt i s l e f t va gue i n t he c ons t i t ut i on T he de pe nde nc e on t he l e gi s l a t ur e f o r e l e c t i on t o t he p r e s i de nc y a nd t he hi gh a m ount o f pow e r gr a nt e d t o P a r l i a m e nt i n t he c ons t i t ut i on i ndi c a t e s a pos i t i on of s ubor di na t i on t o t he C ounc i l of M i ni s t e r s ( C or br i dge a nd H a r r i s s 2000, 187 88 ) T he e xe c ut i ve b r a nc h, how e ve r i s gr a nt e d w i de r a ngi ng e m e r ge nc y pow e r s i n A r t i c l e s 352 360 of t he I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on. T he s e e m e r ge nc y pow e r s i nc l ude t he a bi l i t y t o s us pe nd na t i ona l o r s t a t e e l e c t i ons f or a pe r i od o f s i x m ont hs a nd de c l a r e m a r t i a l l a w na t i ona l l y o r i n a pa r t i c ul a r s t a t e P r e s e nde nt s r ul e c a n be e na c t e d i n a n i ns t a nc e of f or e i gn or i nt e r na l a gg r e s s i on, f i na nc i a l i ns t a bi l i t y or a br e a kdow n of c ons t i t ut i ona l f unc t i on i n a s t a t e o r t e r r i t or y ( P a l m e r 1971, 122) A l t hough t he P r e s i de nt s s ubor di na t e pos i t i on t o P a r l i a m e nt s houl d pr e ve nt t he w a nt on a bus e of t he s e pow e r s by a de s pot i c pr e s i de nt t he a bi l i t y of P a r l i a m e n t t o c ont r ol t he e xe c ut i ve br a nc h w oul d l e a d t o c ont r ove r s i a l a nd pr obl e m a t i c us e s of t he s e E m e r ge nc y pow e r s i n t he de c a de s t ha t f ol l ow e d i nde pe nde nc e D e s pi t e t he a m bi gui t y s ur r oundi ng t he E xe c ut i ve b r a nc h s a ut hor i t y a nd i t s e xt r e m e e m e r ge nc y pow e r s t he c e nt r a l a ut ho r i t y o f t he I ndi a n na t i ona l gove r nm e nt i s unque s t i ona bl y t he P a r l i a m e nt T he t w o c ha m be r s of I ndi a n P a r l i a m e nt a r e s i m i l a r i n c om pos i t i on t o t he W e s t m i ns t e r m ode l but di f f e r i n t e r m s of pow e r s a nd a ut hor i t i e s f or e a c h H ous e S e a t s i n t he P e opl e s C ounc i l ( L ok S a bha ) a r e a s s i gne d by s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t s ys t e m i n e a c h s t a t e ( G ow da a nd S r i dha r a n 2007, 4 5 ) T he C ounc i l o f S t a t e s

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89 ( R a j ya S a bha ) i s t he uppe r hous e of P a r l i a m e nt a n d m e m be r s a r e e l e c t e d by t he s t a t e l e gi s l a t ur e s T he P a r l i a m e nt a r y s ys t e m e s t a bl i s he d by t he I ndi a n c ons t i t ut i on gr a nt s t he L ok S a bha a s ubs t a nt i a l de gr e e of pow e r w hi l e l i m i t i ng t he r ol e of t he R a j ya S a bha i n t he l e gi s l a t i ve pr oc e s s T he P r i m e M i ni s t e r a nd C ounc i l of M i ni s t e r s w ho s e r ve a s t he de f a c t o e xe c ut i ve s of t he I ndi a n gove r nm e nt a r e c hos e n f r om a m ong t he r ul i ng pa r t y o r c oa l i t i on i n t he L ok S a bha a nd t he l ow e r hous e ha s t he a bi l i t y t o c a l l a no c onf i de nc e vot e a nd di s s ol ve t he gove r nm e nt T he a ut ho r i t y t o w r i t e l e gi s l a t i on i n m os t a r e a s i s gr a nt e d t o t he L ok S a bha a nd p r e c e de nc e i s gi ve n t o t he l ow e r hous e i n c a s e of a di s a gr e e m e nt be t w e e n t he t w o c ha m be r s T he R a j ya S a bha a s i t w a s de s i gne d i n t he c ons t i t ut i on i s i nt e nde d t o s e r ve a s a c ha m be r f or r e vi s i on a nd c r i t i que gr a nt i ng s t a t e r e pr e s e nt a t i ve s a s a y i n t he l e gi s l a t i ve pr oc e s s a nd c ur t a i l i ng popul i s t e xc e s s e s on t he pa r t of t he l ow e r hous e ( H a r dg r a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993 63 64 ) T he s t a t e l e gi s l a t i ve a s s e m bl i e s i n I ndi a a r e e s s e nt i a l l y r e pl i c a t i ons i n m i ni a t ur e o f t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt w i t h s o m e va r i a t i on a m on g s t a t e s i n t e r m s of s i z e a nd s t r uc t ur e S om e s t a t e a s s e m bl i e s c ons i s t of a n uppe r a nd l ow e r hous e w hi l e o t he r s pos s e s s a s i ngl e c ha m be r T he r ul i ng pa r t y e l e c t s a c hi e f m i ni s t e r w ho i n t ur n a ppoi nt s a c ounc i l of m i ni s t e r s w ho s e r ve a s t he e xe c ut i ve a dm i ni s t r a t i o n of t he s t a t e E a c h s t a t e a l s o ha s a gove r nor w ho l i ke t he I ndi a n pr e s i de nt pos s e s s e s w e a k e xe c ut i ve pow e r s a nd a s ubor di na t e pos i t i on t o t he l e gi s l a t ur e T he gove r n or s a r e a ppoi nt e d by t he I ndi a n P r e s i de nt a nd a r e us ua l l y not na t i ve t o t he s t a t e s t he y a r e a ppoi nt e d t o i n a n e f f o r t t o l i m i t t he i r i nvol ve m e nt i n l oc a l a f f a i r s ( H a r dgr a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993, 105 06 ) L i ke e l e c t i ons t o t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt s e a t s i n t he s t a t e a s s e m bl i e s a r e a s s i gne d t hr ough c om pe t i t i ve e l e c t i o ns a nd a s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t s ys t e m ( G a ngul y 2007, 31 )

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90 T h e E vol u t i o n of I n d i an D e m oc r ac y W i t hi n t he ba s i c i ns t i t ut i ona l f r a m e w or k pr ovi de d by t he I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on, de m oc r a c y c ont i nue d t o s pr e a d a nd de e pe n a c r os s t he di ve r s e popul a c e of t he s ubc o nt i ne nt D e m oc r a t i c no r m s a nd p r oc e dur e s c ont i nua l l y e vol ve d a nd a dj us t e d t o t he uni que s t r uc t ur e s c ondi t i ons a nd va l ue s of I ndi a a s w e l l a s c ha ngi ng s oc i a l s ys t e m s a nd not i ons of i de nt i t y C ha nge s i n t he na t u r e of I ndi a n pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y, e c onom i c s y s t e m s a nd popul a r s e nt i m e nt ha ve l e d t o s hi f t s i n i ns t i t ut i ona l e qui l i br i um t ha t a l t e r e d t he de ve l opm e nt a l t r a j e c t or y of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y. 1952 1967 A C on gr e s s C on t r ol l e d C o n s ol i d at i o n F ol l ow i ng t he a dopt i on of t he I ndi a n c ons t i t ut i on i n J a nua r y of 195 0 t he da t e f o r t he ne w R e publ i c s f i r s t ge ne r a l e l e c t i ons w a s s e t f or A pr i l 17 t h 1952 M os t s our c e s r e por t e d a n a ppr ox i m a t e l y 45% t ur n out r a t e a nd e l e c t or a l pr oc e dur e s a ppe a r t o ha ve be e n f a i r l y a nd f r e e l y c onduc t e d. U ns ur pr i s i ngl y, t he I N C s w e pt t he e l e c t i ons w i t h l i t t l e i n t he w a y o f oppos i t i on f r om t he l a r ge l y ne w a nd unknow n pa r t i e s f or m e d a f t e r i nde pe nde nc e ( K oc ha ne k 1968, 11) T he C ongr e s s P a r t y w on 364 of t he L ok S a bha s 489 s e a t s f or m i ng a s i ngl e pa r t y gove r nm e nt a nd na m i ng J a w a ha r l a l N e hr u a s P r i m e M i ni s t e r T he I N C a l s o w on a n e l e c t or a l m a j or i t y i n e ve r y s t a t e a s s e m bl y, a nd t he r e f or e e a s i l y e s t a bl i s he d a m a j or i t y i n t he R a j ya S a bha a s w e l l ( P a l m e r 1970, 227) T he de ve l opm e nt of I nd i a n de m oc r a c y f o r t he ne xt t w o de c a de s w oul d be di r e c t e d b y N e hr u

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91 a nd a pol i t i c a l s ys t e m dom i na t e d by a s i ngl e pa r t y. N e hr u w oul d r e m a i n P r i m e M i ni s t e r unt i l hi s de a t h i n 1964, t he i n f l ue nc e of hi s pe r s on a l phi l os ophi e s i nde l i bl y s ha pi ng t he ne xt pha s e of t he I ndi a n t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s N e hr u s i ndi vi dua l i nf l ue nc e on t he e vol ut i on of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y w a s gr e a t l y e nha nc e d by t he I N C s m onopol y on pow e r w hi c h a l l ow e d t he gove r nm e nt t o a l m os t uni l a t e r a l l y i m p l e m e nt na t i ona l pol i c i e s a nd s t a t e bui l di ng pr oj e c t s C ongr e s s w oul d m a i nt a i n i t s e l e c t or a l a dva nt a ge i n t he 1957 a nd 1962 e l e c t i ons de f e a t i ng r i va l pa r t i e s by w i de m a r gi ns I n t he pe r i od be t w e e n 1952 a nd 1967, t he I N C r e t a i ne d be t w e e n 73 % a nd 80 % o f s e a t s i n P a r l i a m e nt w hi l e t he ne xt l a r ge s t s ha r e of s e a t s he l d by a s i ngl e pa r t y w a s 5% I n t h e s a m e pe r i od t he I N C f or m e d t he gove r nm e nt i n a l m os t e ve r y I ndi a n s t a t e e i t he r by m a j or i t y or t hr ough a c oa l i t i on l os i ng onl y one s t a t e l e gi s l a t i ve a s s e m bl y e l e c t i on i n a l l f i f t e e n ye a r s ( E l e c t i on C om m i s s i on of I ndi a 1951 1957 1962 ) D e s pi t e C ongr e s s dom i n a nc e of t he pol i t i c a l s ys t e m e l e c t i ons w e r e c om pe t i t i ve by a l l s t a nda r ds e l e c t or a l pr oc e d ur e s w e r e c onduc t e d f a i r l y a nd vot e r t ur n out w a s hi ghe r t ha n i n c ont e m por a ne ous youn g de m oc r a c i e s W hi l e a s c or e of oppos i t i on pa r t i e s e m e r ge d dur i ng t he s e de c a de s t he y r e m a i ne d di vi de d a nd f a i l e d t o de ve l op t he ki nd o f or ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y a nd pu bl i c s uppor t ne e de d t o pr e s e nt a s e r i ous c ha l l e nge t o t he C ongr e s s P a r t y. D ur i ng t he f i r s t t w o de c a de s of I ndi a s e xi s t e nc e N e hr u a nd t he I N C gui de d t he e vol ut i on of t he I ndi a n pol i t i c a l s ys t e m w i t hi n t he pa r a m e t e r s of t he f ounde r s s oc i a l i s t s e c ul a r a nd de m oc r a t i c i de ol ogy N e hr u w a s a l s o one of t h r e e pr i nc i pl e f ounde r s of t he N on A l i gne d M ove m e nt N e hr u s c om m i t m e nt t o C ol d W a r ne ut r a l i t y a nd m a i nt a i ni ng I ndi a s s ove r e i gnt y w oul d g r e a t l y i n f l ue nc e t he R e publ i c s f or e i gn r e l a t i ons t r a de a nd e c onom i c pol i c i e s ( K oc ha ne k 1968, 55 56) W i t h l i t t l e i n t he w a y of oppos i t i on, t he

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92 I N C l e d P a r l i a m e nt qui c kl y e na c t e d e c onom i c pol i c i e s de s i gne d t o i nc r e a s e gove r nm e nt a l c ont r ol o f t he m a r ke t by e s t a bl i s hi ng s t a t e m onopol i e s i n c e r t a i n s e c t or s a nd i nc r e a s i ng r e gul a t i ons T he gui de l i ne s f o r s t a t e i nt e r ve nt i on i n t he m a r ke t w e r e out l i ne d i n t he I ndus t r i a l P ol i c y R e s ol ut i on A c t of 1948, w hi c h ga ve t he s t a t e e xc l us i ve c ont r ol ove r a r m a m e nt s a t om i c e ne r gy, a s w e l l a s s om e t r a ns por t a t i on, c om m uni c a t i on a nd r e f i ni ng i ndus t r i e s T he I ndus t r i a l P ol i c y R e s ol ut i on of 1956 g r e a t l y e xpa nde d s t a t e c ont r ol of t he m a r ke t t o i nc l ude m or e i ndus t r i a l s e c t or s a nd s e r vi c e s s uc h a s i ns ur a nc e a nd ba nki n g. T he s e r e s ol ut i ons l i m i t e d t he pr i va t e s e c t or m a i nl y t o t he pr oduc t i on of c ons um e r goods a nd e s t a bl i s he d m a ny c ont r ol s a n d r e gul a t i ons on f or e i gn t r a de a nd i nve s t m e nt ( R oge r s 1996 ) E c onom i c pol i c i e s w e r e i m pl e m e nt e d i n F i ve Y e a r P l a ns de s i gne d by t he N a t i ona l P l a nni ng C om m i t t e e E c onom i s t s pol i t i c i a ns a nd r e pr e s e nt a t i ve or ga ni z a t i ons f r om r e l e va nt s e c t or s of t he e c onom y a l l t ook pa r t i n t he de s i gn of t he F i ve Y e a r P l a ns A l t hough de ve l op m e nt a nd e m pl oym e nt be ga n t o i nc r e a s e i t s pa c e w a s s l ow a nd pove r t y a s w e l l a s c a s t e a nd c l a s s di s c r i m i na t i on r e m a i ne d w i de s pr e a d ( H a r dgr a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993, 559) T he gr ow t h of s t a t e i n t e r ve nt i on i n t he e c onom y d ur i ng t he N e hr u ye a r s gr e a t l y a f f e c t e d t he de ve l opm e nt o f I nd i a s bur e a uc r a c y. A s t he gove r nm e nt e xp a nde d i nt o t he m a r ke t a nd be ga n i ni t i a t i ng a r a nge of s oc i a l pr ogr a m s t he s i z e a nd c om pl e xi t y of t he I ndi a n A dm i ni s t r a t i ve S e r vi c e s i nc r e a s e d e xpone nt i a l l y. T he r a pi d r a t e a t w hi c h t he ne e d f or ne w a nd l a r ge r bur e a uc r a t i c o r ga ns gr e w l e d t o l ow e r s t a nda r ds f or a ppoi nt m e nt a br e a kdow n of p r of e s s i ona l i s m a nd de c r e a s e d bur e a uc r a t i c i nde pe nde nc e M i ni s t e r s di r e c t i ng ne w s oc i a l pr og r a m s be ga n e xe r c i s i ng i n c r e a s e d c ont r ol of a ppoi nt m e nt s a nd t r a ns f e r s a s s t a nda r di z e d pr oc e dur e s di s a ppe a r e d i n t he f a c e o f ne w c ha l l e nge s a nd

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93 f unc t i ons ( H a r dgr a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993 97 98 ) T he I ndi a n bur e a uc r a c y, w hi c h ha d be e n f ounde d on t he r e m a i ns of t he p r e s t i gi ous I C S be ga n a s l ow s l i de i n t o c or r upt i on a nd i ne f f i c i e nc y t ha t w oul d s t a l l t he i m pl e m e nt a t i o n of m a ny s t a t e pr ogr a m s D e s pi t e t he s e s e t ba c k s t he r e i s a m pl e e vi de nc e o f I ndi a n de m oc r a c y be c om i ng c ons ol i da t e d dur i ng t he N e hr u ye a r s V ot e r t ur n o ut r a t e s i nc r e a s e d s t e a di l y, r i s i ng f r om 44. 87% i n 1952 t o 55 42% by 1961 ( E l e c t i on C om m i s s i on of I ndi a 1952, 1961) C i vi l s oc i e t y i n I ndi a a l s o g r e w dur i ng t hi s pe r i od be c o m i ng s t r onge r m or e di ve r s e a nd m o r e de m oc r a t i c i n c ha r a c t e r T he r a pi d i nc r e a s e i n s t a t e i nve s t m e nt i n t he i ndus t r i a l s e c t or l e d t o t he f o r m a t i on o f m a ny w or ke r s o r ga ni z a t i ons a nd l a bor uni ons du r i ng t he l a t e 1950s L ow e r c a s t e s a nd t r i ba l g r oups f o r m e d pow e r f u l or ga ni z a t i ons a nd m ove m e nt s t o pr ot e c t t he i r r i ght s a nd f r e e dom s gr a nt e d by t he I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on, a nd vo l unt e e r o r ga ni z a t i ons a nd a i d gr oups g r e w i n s i z e a nd nu m be r s T he ba r ga i ni ng pow e r of t he s e or ga ni z a t i ons a nd t he na t ur e o f s t a t e c i vi l s oc i e t y i nt e r a c t i ons w a s r e f l e c t e d i n t he a bi l i t y of va r i ous a s s oc i a t i on s t o i nf l ue nc e gove r nm e nt pol i c y. O r ga ni z a t i ons r e pr e s e nt i ng e t hni c a nd t r i ba l popul a t i ons w e r e r e pe a t e dl y s uc c e s s f ul i n pr e s s u r i ng t he I ndi a n gove r nm e nt f or s t a t e hood, a nd f i ve ne w s t a t e s w e r e c r e a t e d a l ong e t hni c a nd l i ngui s t i c bounda r i e s be t w e e n 1956 a nd 1963. M a ny I ndi a n a i d a nd vol unt e e r or ga ni z a t i ons w e r e a l s o ut i l i z e d i n t he i m pl e m e nt a t i on of gove r nm e nt a nt i pove r t y a nd de ve l opm e nt pr ogr a m s ga i ni ng w i de s pr e a d a ppr ova l a nd s uppor t f r om I ndi a s di s a f f e c t e d c l a s s e s ( J a ya l 2007, 150 ) T he f i r s t t w o de c a de s of I ndi a n i nde pe nde nc e s a w a n i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of de m oc r a t i c nor m s a nd p r oc e dur e s a m ong t he popu l a t i on, e xpa nde d ne t w or ks o f a s s oc i a t i on t ha t r a i s e d t he ba r ga i ni ng pow e r of m a ny gr oups t hr oughou t I ndi a n s oc i e t y, a nd a s us t a i ne d c om m i t m e nt by t he s t a t e a nd s oc i e t y t o t he ba s i c t e ne t s of t he I ndi a n

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94 C ons t i t ut i on. T he r e w e r e none t he l e s s s om e pot e n t i a l l y da nge r ous de ve l op m e nt s s uc h a s t he c ont i nue d e l e c t or a l dom i na nc e o f a s i ngl e pa r t y a de c l i ne o f bu r e a uc r a t i c e f f i c i e nc y, a nd s l ow e c onom i c de ve l opm e nt T he e vol ut i ona r y t r a j e c t or y o f I ndi a n de m oc r a c y w a s f a r f r om f i xe d, how e ve r a nd a s e r i e s of e ve nt s i n t he 1960s w oul d a l t e r t he pol i t i c a l e qui l i br i um c r e a t i ng oppor t uni t i e s a nd t hr e a t s t o I n di a n de m oc r a c y. C os t l y w a r s w i t h C hi na i n 1962 a nd P a ki s t a n i n 1965 c r e a t e d a s e ve r e e c onom i c c r i s i s i n I nd i a T hi s c r i s i s w a s c om pounde d by dr ought s a nd f a m i ne s i n m uc h of t he s ubc o nt i ne nt t ha t ove r w he l m e d t he c a pa c i t y of t he bur e a uc r a c y t o di s t r i but e goods a nd s e r vi c e s t o t he i m pove r i s he d. N e hr u s de a t h i n M a y o f 1964 de pr i ve d t he I N C of i t s m os t e xpe r i e nc e d a nd pub l i c l y r e c ogni z e d f i gur e N e hr u s s uc c e s s or L a l B a ha dur S ha s t r i w a s a l s o a ve r y s ki l l e d pol i t i c i a n a nd s ha r e d m a ny o f hi s p r e de c e s s or s i de ol ogi e s S ha s t r i be ga n a s e r i e s of a gr a r i a n pol i c i e s i n r e s pons e t o t he f a m i ne s t ha t w oul d e ve nt ua l l y c ul m i na t e i n t he G r e e n R e vol ut i on i n I ndi a a nd t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of s us t a i na bl e f ood s ur pl us e s ( E c he ve r r i G e nt 1996 ) S ha s t r i s de a t h unde r m ys t e r i ous c i r c um s t a nc e s i n 1966 de l a ye d f u r t he r r e f or m s a nd us he r e d I ndi r a G a ndhi i nt o pow e r a n e ve nt t h a t w oul d ha ve s ubs t a nt i a l c ons e que nc e s f or t he I N C a nd I ndi a n de m oc r a c y. 1967 1982: D e m oc r at i c O p e n i n gs an d A u t h or i t ar i an I n t e r l u d e s D u r i n g t h e D e c l i n e of C on gr e s s I ndi r a G a ndhi ha d s e r ve d i n t he L ok S a bha s i nc e i nde pe nde nc e a nd he l d a pos i t i on i n t he C ounc i l of M i ni s t e r s unde r S ha s t r i S he w a s a l s o N e hr u s da ught e r a nd C ongr e s s l e a de r s hi p be l i e ve d he r a ppoi nt m e nt a s P r i m e M i ni s t e r w oul d w i n publ i c s uppor t i n t he ne xt ye a r s e l e c t i ons I ns t e a d, t he 1 967 e l e c t i ons de a l t t he I N C i t s f i r s t

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95 m a j or e l e c t or a l de f e a t T he pa r t y l os t 78 s e a t s i n t he L ok S a bha a nd l os t c ont r o l of t he l e gi s l a t i v e a s s e m bl i e s i n s i x s t a t e s A l t hough I N C l os s e s w e r e c r i t i c a l t he oppos i t i on ga i ns i n P a r l i a m e nt w e r e m a i nl y di vi de d be t w e e n t w o r i ght w i ng pa r t i e s a l l ow i ng C ongr e s s t o f or m t he gove r nm e nt a nd r e t a i n I ndi r a G a ndhi a s P r i m e M i ni s t e r T he C ongr e s s l os s e s w e r e due m or e t o popul a r di s s a t i s f a c t i on w i t h t he I N C t ha n t o a c ha nge of t a c t i c s or c a pa c i t y by oppos i t i on pa r t i e s Y e t t h e 1967 e l e c t i ons ga ve t he di ve r s e a r r a y of I ndi a n pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a n oppor t uni t y t o pr ove t he m s e l ve s t o t he e l e c t or a t e e s pe c i a l l y a t t he s t a t e l e ve l T a ki ng a dva nt a ge of t he I N C s d i m i ni s he d pow e r t he nor m a l l y f r a c t i ous a nd di vi de d oppos i t i on pa r t i e s j oi ne d t og e t he r t o f or m r ul i ng c oa l i t i ons i n t he s t a t e l e gi s l a t i ve a s s e m bl i e s T he s e di ve r s e c oa l i t i o ns of na t i ona l a nd r e gi ona l p a r t i e s i gnor e d a l l i de ol ogi c a l di f f e r e nc e s a nd w e r e o f t e n c om pos e d of e xt r e m e r i ght w i ng a nd l e f t w i ng pa r t i e s C a l l i ng t he i r c oa l i t i on t he U ni t e d F r ont t he unl i ke l y a l l i e s f or m e d gove r nm e nt s i n K e r a l a O r i s s a B i ha r P unj a b, a nd W e s t B e nga l a nd l a t e r m a na ge d t o t oppl e C ongr e s s l e d c oa l i t i ons i n U t t a r P r a de s h, H a r ya na a nd M a dhya P r a de s h ( K a s hya p 1970, 196 97 ) A l t hough m a ny o f t he s e c oa l i t i ons f e l l a pa r t due t o i nf i ght i ng a nd s t r a t e gi c de f e c t i ons f r om s m a l l e r pa r t i e s pa r t i c i pa t i on i n t he U ni t e d F r ont ga ve m a ny r e gi ona l pa r t i e s a c a dr e of e xpe r i e nc e d po l i t i c i a ns a nd i nc r e a s e d publ i c r e c ogni t i on t ha t w oul d a i d i n t he i r s ubs e que nt de ve l opm e nt A l t hough C ongr e s s r e m a i ne d i n c ont r ol of t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt t he f a ul t l i ne s of t he di ve r s e pa r t y t ha t N e hr u m a na ge d t o hol d t o ge t he r be ga n t o e m e r ge T he i nt e r na l l e a de r s hi p of t he I N C a nd m a ny m i ni s t e r s bl a m e d G a ndhi f or t he e l e c t or a l de f e a t s a nd s ought t o l i m i t he r i nf l ue nc e w hi l e d i r e c t i ng t he pa r t y t ow a r d a m or e c e nt r i s t i de ol ogy W he n I ndi r a G a ndhi s uppo r t e d f o r m e r l a bor l e a de r V a r a ha gi r i V e nka t a G i r i 's bi d f or t he

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96 pr e s i de nc y ove r t he I N C l e a de r s hi p s m or e c ons e r va t i ve nom i ne e t he pa r t y e xpe l l e d he r f or i ndi s c i pl i ne T hi s a c t i on s pl i t t he I N C i nt o t w o pa r t i e s ; t he ol d I N C s t r uc t u r e be c a m e C ongr e s s ( O ) f or or ga ni z a t i on w hi l e G a ndhi a nd a m a j or i t y of m i ni s t e r s f o r m e d C ongr e s s ( R ) f o r r e qui s i t i on D e s pi t e t he s pl i t G a ndhi m a na ge d t o r e m a i n P r i m e M i ni s t e r w i t h t he s uppor t of t he C om m uni s t P a r t y a nd t he A ka l i D a l ( E c he ve r r i G e nt 1996 ) I n t he 1971 e l e c t i on, C ongr e s s ( O ) m a i nt a i ne d t he s uppor t of t he H i ndu m i ddl e c l a s s a nd ur ba n e l i t e w hi l e G a ndhi s popul i s t c a m pa i gn bypa s s e d I N C n e t w or ks of pa r t y pa t r ona ge a nd a ppe a l e d di r e c t l y t o l ow e r c l a s s e s a nd c a s t e s G a ndhi s popul i s t m e s s a ge c om bi ne d w i t h he r s e pa r a t i on f r o m w ha t w a s pe r c e i ve d t o be t he p r obl e m a t i c e l e m e nt s of C ongr e s s a nd vot e r di s s a t i s f a c t i on w i t h t he uns t a bl e U ni t e d F r on t gove r nm e nt s e a r ne d he r pa r t y a de c i s i ve vi c t or y i n 1971 C ongr e s s ( R ) w on 352 s e a t s i n t he L ok S a bha w hi l e C ongr e s s ( O ) w on o nl y 16 e a r ni ng f e w e r vo t e s t ha n t he C o m m uni s t P a r t y a nd t he H i ndu na t i ona l i s t J a na S a ngh ( E l e c t i on C om m i s s i on of I n di a 1971 ) T he I N C now be l onge d t o I ndi r a G a ndhi but t he ne w C ongr e s s bor e l i t t l e r e s e m bl a nc e t o t he pa r t y of t he 1950s a nd 1960s T he d e m oc r a t i c e l e c t i on of pa r t y f unc t i ona r i e s l e a de r s hi p c om m i t t e e s a nd w i de g r a s s r oot s ne t w or ks w e r e r e pl a c e d by c l i e nt a l i s t i c s ys t e m t ha t ga ve I ndi r a ul t i m a t e a ut ho r i t y ove r t he pa r t y G a ndhi a s s i gne d l e a de r s hi p pos i t i ons a nd m i ni s t r y pos t s t o l oya l i s t s a nd di s m i s s e d or de m ot e d pa r t y f unc t i ona r i e s w ho que s t i one d or oppos e d he r pol i c i e s I ndi r a G a ndhi s a ut oc r a t i c l e a de r s hi p s t yl e a nd he r pa r t y s m a s s i ve m a j or i t y i n P a r l i a m e nt a l l ow e d he r t o e na c t pol i c i e s w i t h l i t t l e r e s i s t a nc e or c r i t i que G a ndhi m a i nt a i ne d hi gh publ i c s uppor t f ol l ow i ng I nd i a s vi c t or y ove r P a ki s t a n i n 1971 t ha t l e d t o t he s e c e s s i on of E a s t P a ki s t a n a nd t he c r e a t i on o f B a ngl a de s h. T he i m m e ns e c os t of t he w a r how e ve r l e d t o a not he r

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97 e c onom i c dow nt ur n, a nd publ i c p r e s s ur e be ga n t o m ount a ga i ns t I ndi r a G a nhi s C ongr e s s T he e xpl os i ve gr ow t h of pr ot e s t m ove m e nt s a r ound t he na t i on a nd t he i r s uppor t f or oppos i t i on c oa l i t i ons a vot e o f no c onf i de nc e i n P a r l i a m e nt a nd, f i na l l y a H i gh C our t r ul i ng t ha t c ha r ge d I nd i r a w i t h f r a ud i n t he 1971 e l e c t i on w e r e c l e a r i ndi c a t or s of a l oom i ng C ongr e s s de f e a t i n t he ne xt ye a r s e l e c t i ons I n r e s pons e G a ndhi i ns t r uc t e d t he P r e s i de nt t o de c l a r e a s t a t e o f na t i on a l e m e r ge nc y, s us pe ndi ng e l e c t i ons a nd c i vi l l i be r t i e s a nd c e ns or i ng t he m e di a D e s pi t e t he a l r e a dy unc ons t i t ut i ona l na t ur e of I ndi r a G a ndhi s s t a t e o f e m e r ge nc y, t he s i x m ont h t i m e l i m i t on e m e r ge nc y r ul e w a s i gnor e d by G a ndhi s r e gi m e a nd e xt e nde d t w o ye a r s D u r i ng t h i s t i m e l e a de r s f r om a l l oppos i t i on pa r t i e s w e r e j a i l e d w i t hout t r i a l a l on g w i t h m e m be r s of t he I N C w ho s poke out a ga i ns t t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r G a ndhi a l s o pa s s e d l e gi s l a t i on e xone r a t i ng he r a nd he r pa r t y f r o m a ny c ha r ge s o f f r a ud or unc ons t i t ut i ona l be ha vi or a nd pus he d s e ve r a l c ons t i t ut i ona l a m e ndm e nt s t hr ough pa r l i a m e nt t ha t i nc r e a s e d t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r s pow e r ( G ow da a nd S r i dha r a n 2007, 25 26 ) I ndi r a G a ndhi s R e i gn of T e r r or c oul d ha ve e a s i l y e nde d de m oc r a c y i n I ndi a I ns t e a d, i t w a s onl y a s e t ba c k a s t he s t a t e o f e m e r g e nc y w a s une xpe c t e dl y r e voke d by G a ndhi i n J a nua r y of 1977, a nd e l e c t i ons w e r e s c h e dul e d M a r c h. G a ndhi l i ke l y be l i e ve d t ha t a C ongr e s s vi c t or y w a s i ne vi t a bl e due t o t he f r a c t ur e d na t ur e of t he oppos i t i on a nd t he s hor t t i m e f r a m e i n w hi c h t o or ga ni z e A C ong r e s s vi c t or y w oul d a l s o l e gi t i m i z e he r a c t i ons dur i ng t he e m e r ge nc y t o t he pe opl e of I ndi a a nd ot he r na t i ons of t he w or l d I ndi r a di d not a nt i c i pa t e t he a nge r o f t he I ndi a n e l e c t or a t e ove r he r di s r upt i on of de m oc r a t i c r ul e or t he uni on of o t he r pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s i n t he i r oppos i t i on t o he r T he C ongr e s s ( O ) S oc i a l i s t a nd t w o H i ndu na t i ona l i s t pa r t i e s j oi ne d t oge t he r t o f o r m t he

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98 J a na t a P a r t y, e a s i l y de f e a t i ng C ongr e s s i n t he 1977 e l e c t i ons ( H a r dgr a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993, 251 52 ) F o r t he f i r s t t i m e a non C ongr e s s gove r nm e nt w a s f or m e d i n P a r l i a m e nt vow i ng t o undo t he da m a ge of t he E m e r ge nc y a nd r e s t or e I ndi a n de m oc r a c y M or a r j i D e s a e be c a m e P r i m e M i ni s t e r a nd hi s a dm i ni s t r a t i on qui c kl y r e pe a l e d t he a m e ndm e nt s m a de t o t he c ons t i t ut i on dur i ng t he E m e r ge nc y. T he J a na t a P a r t y a l s o a m e nde d t he c ons t i t ut i on t o l i m i t t he P r e s i de nt s e m e r ge nc y po w e r s but t he f r a c t i ous c oa l i t i on w a s i ne f f e c t i ve a nd w e a k, l e a di ng t o i t s c ol l a ps e i n 197 9. E l e c t i ons w e r e s c he dul e d f o r 1980 a nd t he f or m e r uni t y of t he oppos i t i on pa r t i e s ga ve w a y t o f a c t i ona l i s m a nd c om pe t i t i on W i t h no vi a bl e a l t e r na t i ve s a nd a de s i r e f or gove r n m e nt a l s t a bi l i t y, vo t e r s r e t ur ne d I ndi r a G a ndhi a nd t he I N C t o pow e r by w i de m a r gi ns ( K a vi r a j 1986, 1702 03 ) I ndi r a G a ndhi s vi c t o r y w a s s oon ove r s ha dow e d b y t he r i s e o f t he a r m e d K ha l i s t a n M ove m e nt i n t he P unj a b. S i kh na t i ona l i s t s de m a ndi ng t he r i gh t t o s e c e s s i on a nd t he c r e a t i on o f a n i nde pe nde nt S i kh na t i on c a l l e d K ha l i s t a n, ha d be gun f or m i ng a r m e d m i l i t i a s a nd s e ve r a l of t he m ove m e nt s l e a de r s s ought r e c ogni t i on o f S i kh i nde pe nde nc e f r om f o r e i gn gove r nm e nt s a nd t he U N T he m i l i t a r y r e s pons e by t he I ndi a n gove r nm e nt O pe r a t i on B l ue s t a r r e s ul t e d i n t he de a t hs of hundr e ds of c i vi l i a ns a nd w a s w i de l y c onde m ne d by t he I ndi a n m e di a T w o m ont hs l a t e r I ndi r a G a ndhi w a s a s s a s s i na t e d by he r S i kh bodyg ua r ds a nd t he R e publ i c e r upt e d i n vi ol e nt a nt i S i kh r i ot s T he de a t h of I ndi r a G a ndhi l e f t t he a ut oc r a t i c C on gr e s s c om m a nd s t r uc t ur e w i t hout a c l e a r l e a de r I ndi r a G a ndhi ha d m a na ge d t o m a i nt a i n he r pa r t y s e l e c t or a l s uc c e s s t hr ough r ut h l e s s a m bi t i on a n d c om pl e t e di s r e ga r d of de m oc r a t i c p r oc e dur e s a nd va l ue s H ow e ve r no one c a n c l a i m t ha t s he w a s not a b r i l l i a nt pol i t i c i a n, a nd he r a bi l i t y t o s w a y vot e r s e nt i m e nt s uc c e s s f ul l y ove r t hr e w t he ol d I N C e s t a bl i s hm e nt a nd r e t ur ne d he r t o

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99 pow e r t hr e e ye a r s a f t e r s he w a s r e m ove d a s P r i m e M i ni s t e r W i t hout he r do m i ne e r i ng t a c t i c s a nd pol i t i c a l know how t he C ongr e s s w oul d de c a y e ve n f ur t he r l e a di ng t o c ha nge s i n t he I ndi a n pa r t y s ys t e m t ha t w oul d s ha pe I ndi a n de m oc r a c y unt i l t he pr e s e nt da y. 1982 T h e P r e s e n t : T h e S t ab i l i z at i on of t h e P ar t y S ys t e m E c on om i c L i b e r al i z at i on an d t h e R i s e of I d e n t i t y P ol i t i c s F ol l ow i ng I ndi r a G a ndhi s de a t h he r s on R a j i v w a s a ppoi nt e d P r i m e M i ni s t e r by I N C l e a de r s hi p. R a j i v ha d l i t t l e pol i t i c a l e xpe r i e nc e a nd e ve n l e s s de s i r e t o l e a d t he gove r nm e nt D ur i ng t he c a m pa i gn f or t he 1984 ge ne r a l e l e c t i ons t he I N C unde r R a j i v s l e a de r s hi p dr e w upon a nt i S i kh s e nt i m e nt a nd ut i l i z e d H i ndu s ym bol s a nd r he t or i c t o c ons ol i da t e t he pa r t y s e r odi ng publ i c s uppor t T h e s t r a t e gy w a s a s uc c e s s a nd t he I N C w on a n a s t oni s hi ng 404 s e a t s i n t he L ok S a bha ( G a ngul y 2007, 36 ) F ol l ow i ng h i s e l e c t or a l vi c t or y, R a j i v G a ndhi s e t a n a m bi t i ous a g e nda of gove r nm e nt a l a nd e c onom i c r e f or m H i s f i r s t a c t w a s t he A nt i D e f e c t i on B i l l t ha t w oul d be c om e t he f i f t y s e c ond a m e ndm e nt t o t he I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on. T he bi l l pr ohi bi t e d t he us e of br i be s or m i ni s t e r i a l a ppoi nt m e nt s t o i nduc e t he de f e c t i ons of pa r t i e s or i ndi vi dua l s f r om a c oa l i t i on. T he bi l l a l s o s e t r e gul a t i ons f or s pl i t t i ng or m e r gi ng pa r t i e s a nd r e qu i r e d m i ni s t e r s t o r e s i gn t he i r s e a t s be f or e s w i t c hi ng pa r t i e s ( H a r dgr a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993, 262 63) T he a c t w a s m e a nt t o l i m i t t he f a c t i ona l i s m i n f i ght i ng a nd f r e que nt f l oor c r os s i ng t ha t ha d l e d t o t he c ol l a ps e of s o m a ny c oa l i t i on gove r nm e nt s W ha t i s m os t s t r i ki ng a bout t hi s a c t i s t ha t C ongr e s s ha d ove r w he l m i ngl y be ne f i t e d f r om de f e c t i ons i n t he pa s t a nd R a j i v G a ndhi ha d j us t pr ovi de d a l e ga l f r a m e w or k t ha t w oul d s t r e ngt he n non C ongr e s s c oa l i t i on gove r nm e nt s D e s pi t e hi s i n f l a m m a t or y r he t or i c i n t he c a m pa i gn, R a j i v s e t a bout

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100 ne got i a t i ng w i t h S i kh l e a de r s a nd gr a nt e d t he P unj a b m a ny c onc e s s i ons G a ndhi a l s o i ni t i a t e d a s c a l e ba c k of s t a t e c ont r ol ove r t he m a r k e t a s w e l l a s e a s i ng t r a de r e s t r i c t i ons a nd r e gul a t i ons on f or e i gn i nve s t m e nt T he youn g P r i m e M i ni s t e r a l s o a t t e m pt e d t o r e f or m t he c om m a nd s t r uc t u r e of I ndi r a s C ongr e s s but w a s m e t w i t h s t i f f oppos i t i on f r om ol d gua r d pa r t y l e a de r s hi p. D e s pi t e G a ndhi s r e f or m s a s e r i e s of hi gh pr o f i l e c or r upt i on s c a nda l s i nvol vi ng I N C m i ni s t e r s a nd f u nc t i ona r i e s e m e r ge d pr i o r t o t he 1989 e l e c t i ons T he s c a nda l s c oupl e d w i t h a m o r e uni t e d oppos i t i on l e d t o a C o ngr e s s l os s of 207 L ok S a bha s e a t s T he s t unni ng t u r n a r ound ous t e d R a j i v G a ndhi but r e s ul t e d i n a hung P a r l i a m e nt a s no pa r t y or c oa l i t i on ga i ne d a pl ur a l i t y of vot e s T he I N C s s e a t s ha r e w a s r e duc e d t o 197, w hi l e t he J a na t a D a l t he l e a di ng oppos i t i on pa r t y, e a r ne d 143. M os t not a bl y, a young B ha r a t i ya J a na t a P a r t y ha d une xpe c t e dl y i nc r e a s e d i t s L ok S a bha s e a t s f r om 2 t o 85. T he B J P a nd J a na t a D a l f or m e d a r ul i ng c oa l i t i on w i t h s uppor t f r om t he C om m uni s t P a r t y, i ns t a l l i ng V P S i ngh a s P r i m e M i ni s t e r S i ngh e na c t e d a s e r i e s of l a w s t ha t r e s e r ve d pos i t i ons i n va r i ous publ i c s e r vi c e j obs t o l ow e r c a s t e s a nd c l a s s e s H e a l s o a t t e m pt e d t o c om ba t t he r i s e of c om m una l t e ns i ons a nd i de nt i t y pol i t i c s t hr ough a s e r i e s of di pl om a t i c ge s t ur e s t ow a r ds I ndi a s S i khs a nd M us l i m s S i ng h vi s i t e d t he G ol de n T e m pl e a pol ogi z i ng t o t he S i kh na t i ona l i s t or ga ni z a t i ons f o r O pe r a t i on B l ue s t a r S i ngh a l s o s e nt t r oops t o pr o t e c t t he B a br i M a s j i d M os que f r om r a di c a l H i ndu or ga ni z a t i ons ( E c he ve r r i G e nt 1996 ) U nf o r t una t e l y, t he s e a c t i ons di s a f f e c t e d t he H i ndu na t i ona l i s t B J P w hi c h w i t hdr e w i t s s uppor t f or t he c oa l i t i on i n 1990 l e a d i ng t o t he s hor t l i ve d a dm i ni s t r a t i on o f C ha ndr a S he kha r be f or e a C ongr e s s l e d no c onf i de nc e vot e di s s ol ve d t he gove r nm e nt a nd s c he dul e d ne w e l e c t i ons ( A de ne y a nd S a e z 20 05, 7 8 )

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101 T he c a m pa i gn l e a di ng up t o t he 1991 e l e c t i ons s e e m e d t o be he a di ng t ow a r ds a s l i m C ongr e s s vi c t or y. W h i l e c a m pa i gni ng i n T a m i l N a du s hor t l y be f or e t he e l e c t i ons how e ve r R a j i v G a ndhi w a s a s s a s s i na t e d by a s ui c i de bom be r f r om t he L i be r a t i on T i ge r s of T a m i l E l a m due t o hi s de c i s i on t o s e nd I ndi a n p e a c e ke e pi ng f or c e s t o S r i L a nka i n 1987. R i di ng a w a ve o f vot e r s ym pa t hy, t he I N C w on 232 s e a t s i n t he L ok S a bha a nd na m e d N a r i s i m ha R a o a s P r i m e M i ni s t e r T he B J P w on a t ot a l of 120 s e a t s be c om i ng I ndi a s m a i n na t i ona l oppos i t i on pa r t y ( H a r dg r a ve a nd K oc he ne k 1993, 260 ) T he r i s e of t he r a di c a l l y H i ndu na t i on a l i s t B J P w oul d a l t e r t he dyna m i c s of t he pa r t y s ys t e m a nd s ha pe t he na t ur e of I ndi a n e l e c t or a l c om pe t i t i on f o r t he ne xt de c a de T he B J P de ve l ope d out of t he r e m a i ns of t he B ha r a t i ya J a na S a ngh, t he f or m e r pol i t i c a l w i ng of a m a s s i ve a s s oc i a t i on of H i ndu na t i ona l i s t c l ubs s e r vi c e s a n d or ga ni z a t i ons know n a s t he R a s hr t r i ya S w a ya m s e va k S a ngh ( R S S ) T he B J S ha d be e n t oo l i be r a l i n i t s e c onom i c pol i c i e s t hr oughout i t s hi s t o r y, a nd e a r ne d l i t t l e s u ppor t f r om i t s pa r e nt or ga ni z a t i on F ol l ow i ng t he c ol l a ps e of t he J a na t a S a ngh c oa l i t i o n i n 1977 m a ny f or m e r B J S l e a de r s i nc l udi ng A l t a l B i ha r i V a j pa ye e a nd L a l K r i s hna A dva ni f or m e d t he B J P i n a n a t t e m pt t o c r e a t e a m or e c e nt r i s t H i ndu na t i ona l i s t pa r t y. T he f ounde r s c e nt r i s t i de ol ogi e s f a i l e d t o e a r n m uc h e l e c t or a l s uppor t w i nn i ng onl y t w o L o k S a bha s e a t s i n t he 1984 e l e c t i ons ( A de ny a nd S a e z 2005 4 ) V i e w i ng R a j i v G a ndhi s i nf l a m m a t o r y r he t o r i c a n d us e of r e l i gi on t o m obi l i z e s uppor t a s t he c a us e of t he I N C s vi c t or y t he B J P be ga n t o c a pi t a l i z e on t he di vi s i ve i s s ue s of t he da y, s uc h a s a nge r ove r t he s pe c i a l s t a t us of K a s hm i r a nd P unj a b, a nd t he r e s e r va t i on of l e gi s l a t i ve s e a t s a nd gove r nm e nt pos t s f or non H i ndus T he B J P s m a ni pul a t i on of e t hni c t e ns i ons a nd us e of H i ndu r e l i gi ous t he m e s i n c a m pa i gn s pe e c he s

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102 a nd s l oga ns c ons ol i da t e d a w i de ba s e of s uppor t f o r t he pa r t y, a nd e a r ne d t he l oya l t y o f t he R S S T he R S S w a s a bl e t o pr ovi de t he young B J P w i t h t he or ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y, c om m uni c a t i ons ne t w or ks a nd a r m i e s of g r a s s r oot s vol unt e e r s ne e de d t o f o r m a na t i ona l pol i t i c a l pa r t y. T he c ol oni z a t i on of t he R S S c om m a nd s t r uc t ur e a nd ne t w or k of or ga ni z a t i ons by t he B J P c r e a t e d t he m os t pow e r f u l oppos i t i on pa r t y i n t he hi s t or y o f i nde pe nde nt I ndi a T h i s a l l i a nc e how e ve r s e ve r e l y l i m i t e d t he r a nge o f pol i c i e s a va i l a bl e t o B J P pol i t i c i a ns w ho f ound t he i r pa r t y m a r r i e d t o t he c ons e r va t i ve a nd e t hno c e nt r i c i de ol ogi e s of t he R S S ( W i l ki ns i n 2007 26 ) D ur i ng t he R a o a dm i ni s t r a t i on, t he B J P s uppor t e d m a ny of t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r s pol i c i e s m os t not a bl y hi s e c ono m i c l i be r a l i z a t i on i ni t i a t i ve s t ha t s c a l e d ba c k t he I ndi a n bur e a uc r a c y c ons i de r a bl y. T he B J P how e ve r c ont i nue d t o m a ke us e of c om m una l t e ns i ons t o bui l d a ba s e of s uppor t B J P pr e s i de nt L K A dva ni c ont i nue d t o m obi l i z e popul a r s e nt i m e nt a ga i ns t t he B a br i M a s j i d M os que w hi c h m a ny H i ndus be l i e ve d w a s bui l t o ve r t he bi r t hpl a c e of t he god R a m O n D e c e m be r 2, 1992 m e m be r s o f t he V i s hw a H i ndu P a r i s ha d, w i t h t he s uppor t o f R S S a nd B J P l e a de r s hi p, de m ol i s he d t he M os que i nc i t i ng a w a ve of c om m una l vi ol e nc e a c r os s t he na t i on. D e s pi t e t he gove r nm e nt s be s t e f f or t s t o di f f us e t he t e ns i on, t hous a nds of H i ndus a nd M us l i m s w e r e ki l l e d i n t he w or s t r i o t i ng s i nc e P a r t i t i on ( R oge r s 1996 ) T he B J P s H i ndu na t i ona l i s t r he t or i c a nd us e of e t hni c c onf l i c t s t o ga i n s up por t e na bl e d t he ne w pa r t y t o w i n 161 L ok S a bha s e a t s i n t he 1996 e l e c t i ons w hi l e t he I N C s s ha r e w a s r e duc e d t o 140. A B V a j pa ye e of t he B J P w a s i nvi t e d t o f or m t he gove r nm e nt but w a s una bl e t o s e c ur e s uppor t f r om t he l e f t a s w e l l a s s e ve r a l ke y pa r t i e s r e pr e s e nt i ng S i khs a nd M us l i m s V a j pa ye e w a s f or c e d t o r e s i g n, a nd a n uns t a bl e J a na t a c oa l i t i on r ul e d f or t w o ye a r s be f or e c ol l a ps i ng i n 1998 ( M c M i l l a n 2005, 18 ) T he B J P ga i ne d a

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103 f ur t he r 21 s e a t s i n t he 1998 e l e c t i ons i ns t a l l i ng V a j pa ye e a s P r i m e M i n i s t e r a nd f or m i ng a s t a bl e c oa l i t i on gove r nm e nt A l t hough t he gove r nm e nt w oul d l os e a no c onf i de nc e vot e a ye a r l a t e r ( by a s i ngl e vot e ) t he 1999 e l e c t i ons w oul d r e t ur n t he B J P t o pow e r w i t h 270 s e a t s a nd t he r e s ul t i ng gove r nm e nt w oul d l a s t f or a f ul l f i ve ye a r t e r m t he f i r s t non C ongr e s s pa r t y t o do s o. T he B J P unde r V a j pa ye e s l e a de r s hi p s hi f t e d a w a y f r om i t s e t hnoc e nt r i c r he t or i c a nd pol i c i e s i n f a vor o f b r e a d a nd but t e r e c onom i c pol i c i e s T he t r a de l i be r a l i z a t i on i n i t i a t e d by G a ndhi a nd R a o w a s c o nt i nue d a nd m a ny e c onom i c s e c t or s w e r e pr i va t i z e d. T he 2004 e l e c t i ons br oug ht t he I N C ba c k t o pow e r by a s l i m m a r gi n, 145 s e a t s t o t he B J P s 138 T he c oa l i t i on bui l t by C ongr e s s w a s s t a bl e how e ve r a nd M a nm oha n S i ngh, t he f o r m e r f i na nc e m i ni s t e r w ho ha d de s i gne d m a ny o f t he e c onom i c pol i c i e s of t he pa s t t w o gove r nm e nt s w a s e l e c t e d P r i m e M i ni s t e r ( W i l k i ns on 2007, 25 26 ) S i nc e 2004, I ndi a n po l i t i c s ha s c oa l e s c e d a r ound t w o f a i r l y s t a bl e c oa l i t i ons A hos t of c e nt e r l e f t na t i ona l a nd r e gi o na l pa r t i e s ha ve j oi ne d t he U ni t e d P r ogr e s s i ve A l l i a nc e l e d by C ongr e s s w hi l e t he B J P ha s bui l t a c oa l i t i on of c e nt e r r i gh t na t i ona l pa r t i e s a nd r e gi ona l a l l i e s A l t hough t he I N C r e t a i ne d c ont r ol o f t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt i n t he 2009 ge ne r a l e l e c t i ons popul a r s uppor t f or t he B J P ha s i nc r e a s e d a s t he pa r t y s of t e ns i t s H i ndu na t i ona l i s t m e s s a ge T h e I N C l e d gove r nm e nt of t he pa s t t e n ye a r s ha s be e n f or c e d t o w o r k w i t h a pow e r f ul a nd r e l a t i ve l y uni t e d oppos i t i on, a nd ha s i ni t i a t e d m a ny s oc i a l w e l f a r e pol i c i e s i n c onj un c t i o n w i t h m a r ke t de r e gul a t i ons ( O l dunbe r g 2010 184)

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104 A n al ys i s : S u c c e s s e s an d F ai l u r e s of I n d i an D e m oc r ac y T he e vol ut i on o f I ndi a n de m oc r a c y w a s s ha pe d by a va r i e t y of f a c t or s I ns t i t ut i ona l c ons t r a i nt s l i m i t e d t he r a nge of po l i c i e s a nd de c i s i ons ope n t o r ul i ng e l i t e s w hi l e e xt r a s ys t e m i c c ondi t i ons a nd e ve nt s pr ovi d e d oppor t uni t i e s f o r pol i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l c ha nge H um a n a ge nc y a l s o pl a ye d a s i gni f i c a nt r ol e i n t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s a s t he i de ol ogi e s a bi l i t i e s a nd pe r s ona l i t i e s of c e r t a i n i n di vi dua l s pr ove d t o be de f i ni ng va r i a bl e s a t va r i ous poi nt s of t i m e T he de ve l opm e nt of I ndi a s de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s e e m s t o de f y m a ny of t he f unda m e nt a l a s s um pt i ons of d e m oc r a t i z a t i on t he or y. A di ve r s e f r a c t i ous pa r t y s ys t e m e m e r ge d de s pi t e t he pr e s e nc e of s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t s A de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt w a s f o r m e d a nd s ubs e que nt l y s us t a i ne d i t s e l f de s pi t e a n e xt r e m e l y he t e r oge ne ous popul a t i on a nd l i m i t e d e c onom i c gr ow t h. A l i ve l y a nd pow e r f ul c i vi l s oc i e t y de ve l ope d de s pi t e t he pr e s e nc e of de e pl y e nt r e nc he d f or m s o f t r a di t i ona l i de nt i t y a nd r i dgi d s oc i a l hi e r a r c hi e s E ve n i n l i ght of t he s uc c e s s e s of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y, how e ve r t he m a ny p r obl e m s a nd s hor t c om i ngs of t he I ndi a n s t a t e t h r oughout i t s pos t c ol oni a l hi s t or y p r e c l ude a n e a s y c l a s s i f i c a t i on of t h e R e publ i c a s a c ons ol i da t e d de m oc r a c y. I ndi a ha s s t r uggl e d w i t h a r a nge of r e l i gi ous e t hni c a nd c a s t e c onf l i c t s t ha t ha ve ne ve r be e n f ul l y r e s ol ve d. T he r e c ur r e nc e o f e t hni c na t i ona l i s t s e c e s s i on m ove m e nt s unde r m i ne s t he l e gi t i m a c y o f t he s t a t e a nd c o ns t r uc t i ons of na t i ona l i de nt i t y. I ndi a s i na bi l i t y t o a ddr e s s pove r t y a nd a r a nge of hum a n r i ght s i s s ue s c a l l s t he e f f i c i e nc y of t he gove r n m e nt i nt o que s t i on. F i na l l y t he dom i na nc e of a s i ngl e pa r t y t hr ough out t he pa s t s i x de c a de s a nd not a bl e i ns t a nc e s of unde m oc r a t i c be ha vi or by m e m be r s of t he pa r t y r a i s e s c onc e r ns ove r how de m oc r a t i c I nd i a a c t ua l l y i s

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105 D e s pi t e t he s e pr obl e m s I ndi a f i t s t he p r oc e dur a l d e f i ni t i on of a c ons ol i da t e d de m oc r a c y. T he I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on e s t a bl i s he d uni ve r s a l a dul t s uf f r a ge e ve n a t a t i m e w he n m a ny t r a ns i t i oni ng de m oc r a c i e s w e r e c onc e r ne d w i t h l i m i t i ng t he f r a nc hi s e a nd c e m e nt i ng t he pos i t i on of e l i t e s i n pow e r ( G a ngul y 2007, 31) A l t hough de c a de s of s i ngl e pa r t y dom i na nc e ha ve be e n p r obl e m a t i c f o r I ndi a n de m oc r a c y, I nd i a n e l e c t i ons a r e w i de l y c ons i de r e d f r e e a nd f a i r a nd pos i t i ons o f f o r m a l pow e r a r e a c hi e ve d t hr ough c om pe t i t i ve e l e c t i ons ( G ow da a nd S r i dha r a n 2007 4 5) T he C ons t i t ut i on of I ndi a a l s o e s t a bl i s he d ba s i c c i vi l r i ght s a nd l i be r t i e s a s w e l l a s pr ot e c t i on s a nd a f f i r m a t i ve a c t i on pr ogr a m s f or t r a di t i ona l l y di s e nf r a nc hi s e d gr oups A l t hough t he r e ha ve be e n pe r i ods o f s t a t e a bus e or di s r e ga r d of c i vi l r i ght s m os t not a bl y dur i ng t he 1975 1977 E m e r ge nc y, t he y ha ve r e m a i ne d m os t l y i nt a c t f o r t he pa s t s i x d e c a de s a nd m i nor i t y r i ght s a nd a ut onom y ha ve a c t ua l l y i nc r e a s e d ( A l a m 2009, 9 1 0) D e s pi t e num e r ous c ha l l e nge s t o i t s t e r r i t or i a l s ove r e i gnt y by s ub na t i ona l a c t or s I ndi a ha s m a i nt a i ne d t he a bi l i t y t o e xe r c i s e l e gi t i m a t e pow e r w i t hi n i t s bounda r i e s di s a bl i n g s e c e s s i oni s t m ove m e nt s t hr ough gr a nt i ng di pl om a t i c c onc e s s i ons or t he us e of f or c e I n a ddi t i on t o pos s e s s i ng a l l t he de f i ni ng c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of a de m oc r a t i c s t a t e t he r e i s c l e a r i ndi c a t i on t ha t de m oc r a t i c nor m s a nd pr oc e dur e s ha ve be c om e i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d a m ong t he popul a t i on a nd pol i t i c a l e l i t e s W i t h t he e xc e pt i on of t he 1975 1977 E m e r g e nc y, t he ba s i c c ons t i t ut i ona l s t r uc t ur e a nd l e ga l f r a m e w or k t ha t gove r n pol i t i c a l de c i s i on m a ki ng pr oc e dur e s ha ve r e m a i ne d i nt a c t a nd ha ve be c om e t he a c c e pt e d nor m a m ong pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y i n I ndi a D e m oc r a t i c va l ue s a c c e pt a nc e of e l e c t or a l c om pe t i t i on a s t he ba s i s f or a c hi e vi ng f o r m a l pow e r a nd a pe r c e i ve d s t a ke i n m a i nt a i ni ng t he de m oc r a t i c s t a t us quo ha ve a l l be c om e f i r m l y e m be dde d w i t hi n a l l s e c t or s of t he I ndi a n e l e c t or a t e ( H e l l e r 2000 491 92)

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106 I n s hor t t he ba s i c c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of de m oc r a c y ha ve be c om e f i r m l y i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d i n I ndi a T he s t a bi l i t y a nd r e s i l i e nc e of t he s e f ounda t i ona l r e qui r e m e nt s c oupl e d w i t h ne a r uni ve r s a l a c c e pt a nc e a nd s uppor t of de m oc r a t i c nor m s ha s c om bi ne d t o m a ke de m oc r a c y i n I nd i a T he on l y ga m e i n t ow n. D e s pi t e i t s m a ny p r obl e m s a nd f l uc t ua t i ng l e ve l s of gove r nm e nt a l e f f i c i e nc y, I ndi a i s c ons i de r e d by m a ny s c hol a r s t o be one of t he m os t s uc c e s s f ul c a s e s of de m oc r a t i c c on s ol i da t i on i n t he de ve l opi ng w or l d ( L i j pha r t 1996, 258) M a ny t he or i e s ha ve be e n put f or w a r d a t t e m pt i ng t o e xpl a i n I ndi a n de m oc r a c y s une xpe c t e d s uc c e s s S om e s c hol a r s a r gue t ha t I ndi a n de m oc r a c y be c a m e c ons ol i da t e d due t o f a vor a bl e l e ga c i e s of B r i t i s h c ol oni a l i s m w hi c h l e f t t he s ubc ont i ne nt w i t h vi a bl e de m oc r a t i c gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s a nd s oc i a l a nd e c onom i c c ondi t i ons t ha t w e r e a m e na bl e t o c ons ol i da t i on. D e s pi t e t he i n f l u e nc e of w e s t e r n pol i t i c a l ph i l os ophy on m a ny of I ndi a s f ounde r s how e ve r t he hi s t or i c a l d e t e r m i ni s t a r gum e nt ha s l i t t l e c r e de nc e D e m a nds f or pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on on t he pa r t of a de m oc r a t i c a l l y or ga ni z e d a nd or i e nt e d na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt w e r e bi t t e r l y op pos e d by t he B r i t i s h up unt i l t he l a s t ye a r s of t he R a j I ndi a n e l i t e s s uc c e e de d i n a ppr op r i a t i ng de m oc r a t i c i de ol ogi e s a nd s ys t e m s of gove r nm e nt a nd t r a ns pl a nt i ng t he m i nt o t he uni que s oc i a l s ys t e m s of I ndi a A l t hough hi s t or i c a l f o r c e s ha ve undoubt e dl y s ha pe d t he e vol ut i on of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y, t he y a r e not f ound i n t he l e ga c i e s of B r i t i s h r ul e bu t t he de m oc r a t i c c ha r a c t e r of t he na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt w hi c h e ns ur e d t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of a uni que l y I ndi a n de m oc r a t i c pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y ( G a ngul y 2007 30 31) O t he r s c hol a r s ha ve a r gue d t ha t I ndi a n s f e de r a l s t r uc t ur e i s r e s pons i bl e f or t h e s ur vi va l of i t s de m oc r a c y. M a ny t he or i s t s c ont e nd t ha t t he h i gh de gr e e o f pol i t i c a l a ut onom y gr a nt e d t o s t a t e s c ons t i t ut e d a l ong e t hni c a nd l i ngui s t i c bounda r i e s ha s

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107 pr ovi de d a s a f e t y va l ve f or c om m una l t e ns i ons a nd e t hni c na t i ona l i s m I nd i a n f e de r a l i s m gr e a t l y a i de d i n de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on a nd c ons ol i d a t i on. T he s ys t e m i n a nd of i t s e l f how e ve r c a nnot e xpl a i n t he s us t e na nc e of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y w he n m a ny ot he r e xa m pl e s of e t hno f e de r a l i s m ha ve f a i l e d ( M i t r a 2007 90 ) S om e s c hol a r s be l i e ve t ha t c ul t ur a l f a c t or s a l l ow e d de m oc r a c y t o be c om e e m be dde d i n I ndi a n s oc i e t y, c i t i ng t he t ol e r a nt a nd i nc l us i ve na t ur e of H i ndu i s m or t he s t a bi l i t y o f t he r e l i gi ous l y or da i ne d s oc i a l s ys t e m a s f a vor a bl e gr ounds f o r de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m s A ga i n, a l t hough c ul t ur a l f or c e s a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s ha ve i nf l ue nc e d I ndi a n de m oc r a c y, t h i s e xpl a na t i on f a l l s w oe f ul l y s hor t e s pe c i a l l y c ons i de r i ng t he de c i de dl y i nt ol e r a nt na t ur e of t he young B J P a nd ot he r r e l i gi ous pa r t i e s ( A de ny a nd W ya t t 2004 4) F i na l l y, a nu m be r o f t he or i s t s of f e r a n e l i t e c e nt r i c a ppr oa c h t o a na l ys i s of de m oc r a c y i n I ndi a c l a i m i ng t ha t t he pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s t he pa r t y s ys t e m a nd i ndi v i dua l pol i t i c i a ns de di c a t e d t o de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s ha ve c om pl e t e l y c ont r ol l e d t he de ve l opm e nt of I ndi a n d e m oc r a c y. W hi l e t he i nf l ue nc e of pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y on t he c our s e of I ndi a s t r a ns i t i on a nd c ons ol i da t i on a r e una r gua bl e t he i ndi vi dua l s pa r t i e s a nd t he pa r t y s ys t e m i t s e l f w a s s ha pe d a nd c ons t r a i ne d by a va r i e t y of s t r uc t ur e s a nd f or c e s ( M oha nt y 2004 108) U l t i m a t e l y, ho w e ve r t he c ons ol i da t i on a nd m a i nt e na nc e of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y i s t he pr oduc t o f i ns t i t ut i ons a nd a r a nge o f i n t e r na l a nd e xt e r na l f o r c e s t ha t s ha pe d t he i r de ve l opm e nt T he r oo t s of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y l i e i n t he na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt of t he c ol oni a l e r a a nd m o r e s pe c i f i c a l l y, t he I N C T he c om m i t m e nt t o de m oc r a c y a nd a un i f i e d s ove r e i gn I ndi a gui de d t he de ve l opm e nt of t he I N C t hr oughout t he s t r uggl e f o r i nde pe nde nc e T he s t r uc t u r e a nd p r oc e dur e s of t he I N C w e r e ba s e d on de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s w i t h a l l pos i t i on s be i ng a s s i gne d t hr oug h e l e c t i ons a m ong C ongr e s s m e m be r s

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108 a nd da y t o da y de c i s i on m a ki ng pr oc e s s e s f ol l ow i ng pa r l i a m e nt a r y p r oc e dur e s ( V or a a nd P a l s hi ka r 2004, 16 ) T he e nt r e nc hm e nt of de m oc r a t i c nor m s a nd p r oc e dur e s a m ong t he I N C m e m be r s c oupl e d w i t h a h i s t or y o f e l e c t or a l s uc c e s s i n t he c ol oni a l l e gi s l a t ur e s pr ovi de d t he pa r t y w i t h e xpe r i e nc e d l e a de r s a nd c o m pl e t e f a i t h i n de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m s of gove r na nc e C ongr e s s dom i na nc e of bot h t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y a nd pos t 1950 e l e c t i ons w a s bot h pr obl e m a t i c a nd be ne f i c i a l t o t h e de ve l opm e nt of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y. T he s uc c e s s of t he I N C w a s due t o i t s unr i va l e d or ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y, publ i c s uppor t a nd r e c ogni t i on, a s w e l l a s t he s i ngl e m e m be r di s t r i c t s ys t e m of a s s i gni ng L ok S a bha s e a t s T he I N C s un i que p os i t i on a t t he a c hi e ve m e nt of i nde pe nde nc e a nd t he de s i gn of t he e l e c t or a l s ys t e m s e ve r e l y c ons t r a i ne d t he de ve l opm e nt of a pa r t y s ys t e m t ha t w a s a l r e a dy f r a c t i ous due t o I ndi a s e t hni c s oc i a l a nd e c onom i c di ve r s i t y ( H a r g r a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993, 226 27 ) T he e a r l y e l e c t or a l dom i na nc e of t he I N C a l s o m e a nt t ha t pow e r w a s he l d by I ndi a s m os t e xpe r i e nc e d a nd c a pa bl e l e a de r s a t t h e t i m e p r ovi di ng s t a bi l i t y t o t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s C ongr e s s c ont r ol ove r t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y a nd na t i ona l gove r nm e nt m e a nt t ha t t he or ga ni z a t i on m os t c om m i t t e d t o de m oc r a c y ove r s a w t he pr oc e s s of c ons ol i da t i on. I f t he I N C ha d s ha r e d po w e r w i t h a ny of t he pl e t hor a o f pa r t i e s t ha t oppos e d de m oc r a c y or a dvoc a t e d a r e l i gi ous s t a t e t he I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on a nd gove r na nc e s t r uc t u r e w oul d ha ve l ooke d ve r y d i f f e r e nt ( G a ngul y 2007 36 ) T he I N C s l ong pe r i od o f unc ha l l e nge d r ul e c oul d ha ve ha d d e l e t e r i ous e f f e c t s on I ndi a n de m oc r a c y ha d t he i nt e r na l s t r uc t ur e of t he pa r t y be e n di f f e r e n t T he e a r l y e l e c t or a l do m i na nc e of a s i ngl e pa r t y i s a c om m on phe nom e non i n t r a ns i t i o ni ng de m oc r a c i e s due t o t he uni t y a nd c ohe s i on of pa r t i e s oppos e d t o c ol oni a l or a ut hor i t a r i a n r ul e I n m a ny c a s e s how e ve r

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109 pa r t i e s i ni t i a l l y e l e c t e d de m oc r a t i c a l l y w i l l e nga ge i n a va r i e t y of unde m oc r a t i c be ha vi or s t o m a i nt a i n c ont r o l of t he gove r nm e nt I n s uc h c a s e s t he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on o f de m oc r a t i c nor m s a nd p r oc e dur e s a r e s e ve r e l y de l a ye d. T he C ongr e s s P a r t y o f 1950 1971 m a i nt a i ne d a de m oc r a t i c s t r uc t ur e t ha t c ons t r a i ne d t he be ha vi or o f i t s m e m be r s pr e c l udi ng a ny s i gni f i c a nt b r e a ks f r om c om m i t m e nt s t o de m oc r a t i c p r i nc i pl e s T he pa r t y a l s o a c t i ve l y e nc our a ge d i de ol ogi c a l di f f e r e nc e s a nd f a c t i ona l i s m gua r a nt e e i ng a n i nt e r na l de m oc r a t i c p r oc e s s w i t hi n t he gove r nm e nt de s pi t e i t s dom i na nc e by a s i ngl e pa r t y ( G ow da a nd S r i dha r a n 2007, 8 9) T he be gi nni ng o f t he e nd of C ongr e s s dom i na nc e c a n be t r a c e d t o t he pa r t y s f i r s t e l e c t or a l de f e a t s i n 1967. T hi s e l e c t i on be ga n a s l ow pr oc e s s of ope ni ng t he pa r t y s ys t e m t ha t e ve nt ua l l y l e d t o t he m o r e or l e s s bi pol a r c oa l i t i ona l a l i gnm e nt o f t oda y T hi s c ha nge w a s f a c i l i t a t e d by s e ve r a l f a c t or s F i r s t t h e pr a c t i c e of g r a nt i ng s t a t e hood t o e t hni c a l l y di s t i nc t a r e a s be gi nni ng i n 1956 a nd c ont i nui ng t hr ough 2000 c r e a t e d f e r t i l e gr ound f o r t he de ve l opm e nt of r e gi ona l po l i t i c a l pa r t i e s ( P a l m e r 1971, 233 34) T he s e pa r a t i on of e t hni c popul a t i ons i nt o di s t i nc t f e de r a l s ubuni t s a l l ow e d f or s m a l l e r pa r t i e s de vot e d t o a c hi e vi ng a hi ghe r de gr e e o f a ut onom y s pe c i a l gove r nm e nt a l c onc e s s i ons or e ve n s e c e s s i on t o e m e r ge T he c r e a t i on of e t hni c m a j or i t y s t a t e s e l i m i na t e d t he ne e d f or r e gi ona l pa r t i e s t o de ve l op a br oa d i nc l us i ve m e s s a ge t o a ppe a l t o va r i ous gr oups I ns t e a d, t he s e pa r t i e s m a de us e of s pe c i f i c c ul t ur a l s ym bol s a nd a ppe a l s t o e t hni c i de nt i t y t o s e c ur e vot e s f or t he s t a t e a nd na t i ona l gove r nm e nt s ( T e l f o r d 1997 970 71 ) T he e m e r ge nc e of t he s e gr oups m os t not a bl y i n t he s t a t e s of P unj a b a nd T a m i l N a du, w e r e i ns t r um e nt a l i n e r odi ng I ndi a s one pa r t y dom i na nt s ys t e m T hi s de ve l opm e nt a l s o m a de e t hni c i de nt i t y pol i t i c a l l y s a l i e nt c ha l l e ngi ng t he s e c ul a r de f i ni t i on of I ndi a n na t i ona l i t y

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110 a nd ha r de ni ng i nt e r a nd i nt r a e t hni c r e l a t i ons a nd p ow e r s t r uc t ur e s ( A de ne y a nd W ya t t 2004, 10) T he c i vi l r i ght s a nd l i be r t i e s gua r a nt e e d i n t he I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on a s w e l l a s i t s pr o t e c t i on f o r m i nor i t i e s l e d t o t he gr ow t h o f c i vi l s oc i e t y i n I ndi a T h i s de ve l opm e nt w oul d l i m i t t he C ongr e s s m onopol y on gove r nm e n t pow e r by e r odi ng t he pa r t y s ba s e of s uppor t a m ong t he r ur a l poor T he I N C of 1950 1 967 m a i nt a i ne d pow e r t hr ough a n e l e c t or a l a l l i a nc e of H i ndu ur ba n e l i t e t he gr ow i ng m i ddl e c l a s s M us l i m s a nd l ow e r c l a s s a nd c a s t e popul a t i ons i n t he c ount r ys i de T h e l ow c l a s s e s a nd unt ouc ha bl e s w e r e m obi l i z e d dur i ng t he na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt a nd po s t c ol oni a l e l e c t i ons t hr ough a n e l a bor a t e s ys t e m of C ongr e s s pa r t y bos s e s w i t hi n t he c a s t e hi e r a r c hy of vi l l a ge s a nd t ow ns T he l ow e r c a s t e s a nd c l a s s e s w e r e m obi l i z e d pol i t i c a l l y, but not on t he i r ow n t e r m s i ns t e a d s e r vi ng a s vot e ba nks f or t he I N C ( H e l l e r 2000, 504) T he gr ow t h of c i v i l s oc i e t y l e d t o t he c r e a t i on of c a s t e a nd c l a s s or ga ni z a t i ons a nd t he e m e r ge nc e o f t he s e popul a t i ons a s s e l f or ga ni z i ng s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l f or c e s ( J a ya l 2007, 150 51) I ndi r a G a ndhi w oul d r e m ove a ny f u r t he r c ons t r a i nt s on t he de ve l opm e nt o f a t r ul y m ul t i pa r t y s ys t e m w i t h he r w hol e s a l e di s m a nt l i ng of t he I N C pow e r s t r uc t ur e a nd I ndi a s br i e f a ut hor i t a r i a n e pi s ode C ongr e s s ne ve r a ga i n r e ga i ne d t he s a m e l e ve l of or ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y, a nd t he gove r nm e nt a l r e f o r m s i ni t i a t e d i n r e a c t i on t o t he E m e r ge nc y pl a c e d gr e a t e r c ons t r a i nt s on t he a bi l i t y t o us e P r e s i de nt i a l R ul e a nd e s t a bl i s he d gr e a t e r di vi s i on be t w e e n gove r nm e nt b r a nc he s ( H a r dgr a ve a nd K oc ha ne k 1993, 249 50 ) T he E m e r ge nc y a l s o r e i nvi go r a t e d t he j udi c i a l s ys t e m w hi c h ha s s i nc e gr ow n i nc r e a s i ngl y bo l d a nd e f f e c t i ve i n uphol di n g t he c ons t i t ut i on a nd r e gul a t i ng unc ons t i t ut i ona l be ha vi or a m ong e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s ( M e ht a 2007, 117 18 ) R a t he r t ha n de r a i l or de s t r oy de m oc r a c y, G a ndhi s e m e r ge nc y r ul e pr oduc e d a r e ne w e d c om m i t m e nt

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111 t o t he pr e s e r va t i on o f de m oc r a c y by I nd i a s popul a t i on a nd pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y. T he l os s of t he C ongr e s s pa r t y m a c hi ne r y, a nd l a t e r i t s a ut oc r a t i c l e a de r I ndi r a f or c e d t he pa r t y t o r e s or t t o r e l i gi ous r he t or i c a nd i de nt i t y pol i t i c s t o m a i nt a i n publ i c s uppor t A hos t o f gr ow i ng pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s f ol l ow e d s ui t m os t not a bl y t he B J P w hi c h e s t a bl i s he d a na t i ona l ba s e of s uppor t by c ol oni z i ng t he or ga ni z a t i ona l ne t w or ks of t he R S S a nd ot he r H i ndu na t i ona l i s t a s s oc i a t i ons T hi s a l l i a nc e b r oug ht t he B J P r a pi d e l e c t or a l s uc c e s s but c onf i ne d t he pol i c y opt i ons of t he pa r t y t o t he pol i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l r i ght ( M c M i l l a n 2005, 18) T he na t ur e o f t he pa r t y s ys t e m a nd pol i t i c a l c om pe t i t i on c ha nge d dr a m a t i c a l l y dur i ng t he 1990s a s i de nt i t y pol i t i c s a nd c om m una l i s t a ppe a l s by pa r t i e s r e pl a c e d gr a s s r oot s ne t w or ks a nd s ys t e m s of pa r t y pa t r ona g e a s t he ba s i s f or m ob i l i z i ng m a s s s uppor t ( H e l l e r 2000 49 3 94) A t t he s t a t e a nd na t i ona l l e ve l r e l i gi ous e t hni c a nd c a s t e i de nt i t i e s be c a m e m or e r i gi d a nd pa r t i e s be ga n t o or ga ni z e a l ong l i ne s of s oc i a l a nd c ul t ur a l c l e a va ge s T he l i m i t s o f s uc h s t r a t e gi e s qu i c kl y be c a m e a ppa r e nt how e ve r a s t he 1996 B J P gove r nm e nt w a s una bl e t o s e c ur e P a r l i a m e nt a r y s uppor t f r om pa r t i e s r e pr e s e nt i ng or i nc l udi ng r e l i gi ous m i nor i t i e s a nd l ow e r c a s t e gr oups T he l a s t d e c a de ha s de m ons t r a t e d a pr oc e s s of pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng i n bot h t he I N C a nd B J P T he I N C ha s r e i ns t a t e d t he i nt e r na l de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s a nd s t r uc t ur e de s t r oye d by I ndi r a G a ndhi a nd t he B J P ha s be gun a p r oc e s s of m ode r a t i ng i t s i de ol ogy a nd a ppe a l i ng t o M us l i m s a nd S i khs ( W i l ki ns on 2007 30 32) T he p r of us i on of e t hni c r e l i gi ous or c a s t e ba s e d pa r t i e s a t t he s t a t e a nd na t i ona l l e ve l ha s c oi nc i de d w i t h t he bi pol a r i z a t i on of t he I ndi a n pa r t y s ys t e m i nt o t w o r e l a t i ve l y s t a bl e c oa l i t i ons R a t he r t ha n e nf l a m e m o r e c om m una l t e ns i ons a nd c onf l i c t s e t hni c pa r t i e s ha ve be e n s uc c e s s f ul l y c o opt e d by t he oppos i ng

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112 c oa l i t i ons a nd ha ve s e r ve d a s r e pr e s e nt a t i ve s of t h e i r r e s pe c t i ve c om m uni t i e s w i t hi n t he c oa l i t i ons I n t hi s m a nne r a n i nf or m a l s ys t e m of p ow e r s ha r i ng, i n w hi c h m i nor i t y pa r t i e s a r e a c t i ve l y c our t e d a nd gr a nt e d pos i t i ons w i t hi n a c oa l i t i on ha s de ve l ope d i n I ndi a ( A de ne y a nd W ya t t 2004, 9) I ndi a n de m oc r a c y ha s de ve l ope d w i t hi n a n i ns t i t ut i ona l f r a m e w or k c ons t r uc t e d a nd i ni t i a l l y m a i nt a i ne d by a de m oc r a t i c a l l y or ga ni z e d a nd di s c i pl i ne d pol i t i c a l pa r t y. T he gr ow t h of c i v i l s oc i e t y ha s e r ode d t he bounda r i e s of s oc i a l c a t e gor i e s by pr ov i di ng a ve nue s f or upw a r d m obi l i t y a nd pol i t i c a l pow e r t o di s a dva nt a ge d c l a s s e s w hi l e a t t he s a m e t i m e r e i nf or c i ng l ong e s t a bl i s he d e t hni c r e l i gi ous a nd c a s t e i de nt i t i e s T he e r os i on of t he s e c ul a r vi s i on o f I ndi a n na t i ona l i de nt i t y t ha t a c c om pa ni e d t he de c l i ne of t he I N C l e d t o t he a s s e r t i on o f s ub na t i ona l i de nt i t i e s a s e t hni c gr oupi ngs be c a m e uni t s of pol i t i c a l j ur i s di c t i on w i t hi n t he f e de r a l s t r uc t ur e o f t he R e publ i c L a c ki ng o r ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y, t he I N C B J P a nd ot he r pa r t i e s r e l i e d on bui l di ng a nd m obi l i z i ng s uppor t t hr ough t he m a ni pul a t i on of c ul t ur a l s ym bol s a nd a ppe a l s t o r e l i gi ous a nd e t hni c i de nt i t y A l t hough t he s e pr a c t i c e s a nd pr oc e s s e s ha ve s pa w ne d i nnum e r ous i ns t a nc e s of c om m una l vi ol e nc e t he s t a bi l i z a t i on of t he I ndi a n pa r t y s ys t e m i n t o t w o c oa l i t i ons a l ong a l e f t r i ght a xi s ha s a l l ow e d t he da nge r ous pot e nt i a l o f e t hni c ba s e d pa r t i e s t o be unde r c u t a nd a bs or be d i n t o a pow e r s ha r i ng s ys t e m w i t hi n e a c h c oa l i t i on I n t hi s f or m i de nt i t y ba s e d pa r t i e s be c om e ve hi c l e s f or t he r e pr e s e nt a t i on of I ndi a s d i ve r s e s oc i a l c a t e gor i e s M i nor i t y gr oups a nd D a l i t s a r e now a c t i ve l y c our t e d by I nd i a s dom i na nt po l i t i c a l pa r t i e s e ns ur i ng di s e nf r a nc hi s e d gr oups m or e pow e r a nd i nf l ue nc e t ha n t he y e ve r ha d be f or e D e s pi t e m a ny t hr e a t s a nd pr obl e m a r e a s I ndi a n de m oc r a c y ha s s how n a r e m a r ka bl e r e s i l i e nc e ove r t he pa s t s i xt y ye a r s a nd now i t s how s s i gns o f be c om i ng m o r e s t a bl e a nd

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113 r e pr e s e nt a t i ve A l t hough t he c a s e of I ndi a c a nnot be e a s i l y f i t i nt o m a ny m ode l s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on t he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of de m oc r a t i c nor m s pr oc e dur e s a nd s t r uc t ur e s i n t he f a c e of num e r ous c ha l l e nge s de m ons t r a t e s t he c ont i nue d s t r e ngt h of t he R e publ i c s c ons ol i da t e d de m oc r a c y.

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114 C h ap te r 4: D e mo c r ati z at i on i n P ak i s tan I n a ddi t i on t o t he hos t of pol i t i c a l e c onom i c a nd s oc i a l c ondi t i ons t ha t pr e s e nt e d i m m e di a t e hur dl e s t o de m oc r a t i z a t i on i n P a ki s t a n, i s s ue s of na t i ona l i nt e gr a t i on, i de nt i t y a nd t he vi a bi l i t y of t he r e c e nt l y de f i ne d s t a t e qui c k l y e m e r ge d. T he t e r r i t or i a l di vi s i on of P a ki s t a n i nt o t w o w i ngs s e pa r a t e d by ove r 1 600 ki l om e t e r s of I ndi a n t e r r i t or y a s w e l l a s t he une qua l popu l a t i on di s t r i but i ons a c r os s t he t w o w i ngs pos e d a uni que c ha l l e nge t o t he f r a m e r s o f t he P a ki s t a ni C ons t i t ut i on. I s l a m ha d s e r ve d a s t he ba s i s of t he L e a gue s de m a nd f or pa r t i t i on a nd upon i nde pe nde nc e t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y f a c e d t he t a s k of de f i ni ng t he r ol e of r e l i gi on i n t he s t a t e F i na l l y e t hni c di vi s i ons i n P a ki s t a n w e r e s t r onge r t ha n t he c om m on r e l i g i ous i de nt i t y m obi l i z e d by t he L e a gue c r e a t i ng a hos t of c onf l i c t ua l c e nt e r pe r i phe r y r e l a t i ons T he c ha ot i c na t ur e of P a ki s t a n s e a r l y pol i t i c a l de ve l opm e nt pr e ve nt e d t he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of d e m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s a nd pr oc e dur e s pr ovi di ng ope ni ngs t o f or m a l pow e r f or une l e c t e d i ndi vi dua l s a nd non de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons T h e F ou n d i n g of t h e N at i on T he G ove r nm e nt o f I ndi a A c t o f 1935 s e r ve d a s t h e pr ovi s i ona l c ons t i t ut i on f or P a ki s t a n, but a f e w m odi f i c a t i ons w e r e qui c kl y a dde d. T he pos i t i on of P r i m e M i ni s t e r w a s c r e a t e d a nd f i l l e d by J i nna h s r i ght ha nd m a n L i a qua t A l i K ha n T he P r i m e M i ni s t e r e l e c t e d by t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y, w a s i nt e nde d t o r e pl a c e t he ove r l y pow e r f ul

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115 pos i t i on of G ove r no r G e ne r a l i n t he 1935 c ons t i t ut i on, w hi c h w a s l a r ge l y r e duc e d t o a c e r e m oni a l f unc t i on ( H a qa nni 2006, 220) T he po w e r s a nd r e l a t i on be t w e e n t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r a nd G ove r nor G e ne r a l w e r e poor l y de f i ne d how e ve r a nd w i t h t he w i l d l y popul a r J i nna h oc c upyi ng t he pos i t i on t he of f i c e o f G ove r nor G e ne r a l a s s um e d c e nt r a l i m por t a nc e i n t he ne w gove r nm e nt ( B a xt e r 1995 6 3 64 ) W i t h hi s r ol e s a s G ove r no r G e ne r a l P r e s i de nt o f t he M us l i m L e a gue a nd he a d of t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y, M uha m m a d A l i J i nna h e nj oye d unr i va l e d pow e r a nd i nf l ue nc e ove r t he di r e c t i on of t he P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s U nde r J i nna h s gui da nc e t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y be ga n dr a f t i ng a de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i on, a l t hough d i s a gr e e m e nt ove r t he r ol e of I s l a m a nd w he t he r P a ki s t a n s houl d be a p r e s i de nt i a l or pa r l i a m e nt a r y s ys t e m s t a l l e d pr ogr e s s T he P r i nc e l y S t a t e s w i t hi n P a ki s t a n s bor de r s w e r e pe a c e f ul l y a bs or be d w i t h gua r a nt e e s of s pe c i a l pr i vi l e ge s gr a nt e d t o t he f or m e r r ul e r s ( K ha l i d 19 67, 133 ) C onf l i c t e r up t e d ove r t he P r i nc e l y S t a t e of J a m m u K a s hm i r how e ve r w hi c h l e d t o t he f i r s t I ndi a n P a ki s t a ni W a r i n O c t obe r of 1947 T he e nd of t he w a r i n a s t a l e m a t e a nd U N e nf o r c e d c e a s e f i r e m a de t he m i l i t a r y a s our c e o f na t i ona l pr i de i n P a k i s t a n but a l s o i ns pi r e d f e a r s o f be i ng r e a bs or be d by a l a r ge r m or e pow e r f ul I ndi a ( C a l l a r d 1956, 13 ) U nde r t he I ndi a n I nde pe nde nc e A c t of 1947, P a ki s t a n i nhe r i t e d onl y 30% of t he B r i t i s h I ndi a n a r m y 20 % o f i t s a i r f or c e a nd 40% of i t s na vy ( H a qqa ni 20 05, 26) M os t of t he hi ghe r r a nki ng of f i c e r s o f t he c ol oni a l a r m y ha d be e n B r i t i s h, H i ndu or S i kh a nd t he m a j or i t y of t he P a ki s t a ni of f i c e r c or ps w e r e of m i ddl e or l ow e r r a nk. M os t of t he w e a pons a nd m uni t i ons f a c t or i e s t ha t s uppl i e d t he c ol oni a l a r m y a l s o w e nt t o I ndi a ( C ohe n e t a l 1992 301 ) T he w e a k a nd di s or ga ni z e d s t a t e of t he P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y f ol l ow i ng i nde pe nde nc e a nd t he F i r s t I ndo P a ki s t a ni w a r p r om pt e d t he C ons t i t ue nt

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116 A s s e m bl y t o i ni t i a t e a m a s s i ve m i l i t a r y bui l dup di ve r t i ng va l ua bl e f und i ng a nd a t t e nt i on f r om P a ki s t a n s a l r e a dy f l ounde r i ng e c onom y ( S ha h 2002, 68 ) T he p r of e s s i ona l i s m e f f i c i e nc y, a nd popu l a r i t y o f t he m i l i t a r y w e r e a l s o s e e n a s a m e a ns of e s t a bl i s hi ng c ont r ol a nd s t a bi l i t y ove r t he s t a t e E l e ve n M us l i m m i l i t a r y of f i c e r s w e r e t r a ns f e r r e d i nt o ke y pos i t i ons i n t he g r ow i ng C i vi l S e r vi c e s of P a ki s t a n, a nd t he m i l i t a r y w a s a l s o ut i l i z e d i n t he i m pl e m e nt a t i on of a va r i e t y of e a r l y r e l i e f pr ogr a m s a nd s t a t e bui l di ng p r oj e c t s ( B a xt e r 1995, 37 ) T he M us l i m L e a gue a l s o f or m e d a l l i a nc e s w i t h t he l a nde d a r i s t oc r a c y i n P unj a b a nd B e nga l t o e ns ur e s t a t e c ont r ol a t t he l oc a l l e ve l a nd a ba s e of s uppor t f or t he pa r t y ( K ukr e j 2003 7 8) T he r a pi d bui l d up o f t he m i l i t a r y a nd bur e a uc r a c y, a s w e l l a s t he f or m a t i on of pa t r ona ge ne t w or ks a m ong t r a d i t i ona l r ur a l e l i t e s a l l ow e d t he s t a t e of P a ki s t a n t o s ur vi ve t he v i ol e nc e a nd c ha os of t he f i r s t ye a r s of i nde pe nde nc e D e s pi t e a c hi e vi ng s om e de gr e e of s t a bi l i t y t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y w a s s t i l l una bl e t o r e a c h a c ons e ns u s on t he r ol e o f r e l i gi on i n t he s t a t e o r a c ons t r uc t i on of P a ki s t a n t ha t w oul d uni t e t he na t i on s d i ve r s e popul a t i on. D e f i n i n g P ak i s t an i N at i on al I d e n t i t y O ne of t he c e nt r a l que s t i ons f a c e d by t he P a ki s t a ni c ons t i t ut i on f r a m e r s w a s t he e xt e nt of I s l a m i c i nf l ue nc e on t he ne w gove r nm e nt A ppe a l s t o a c om m on r e l i gi ous i de nt i t y a nd f e a r s o f dom i na t i on by a non M us l i m m a j or i t y ha d de f i ne d t he M us l i m L e a gue a nd t he m ove m e nt f or a s e pa r a t e s t a t e I s l a m i c phi l os ophi e s a nd pr a c t i c e s di f f e r e d w i l dl y a m ong t he di ve r s e c ul t ur e s t h a t c o m pr i s e d P a ki s t a n, how e ve r c om pl i c a t i ng t he c ons t r uc t i on o f a un i f yi ng s t a t e r e l i gi on. A pl e t ho r a of he t e r odox

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117 I s l a m i c s e c t s a s w e l l a s r e m a i ni ng H i ndus S i khs a nd C hr i s t i a ns a l s o pr e s e nt e d di f f i c ul t i e s t o e s t a bl i s hi ng P a ki s t a n a s a n I s l a m i c s t a t e ( V e r ka a i k 2004, 23 24 ) M a ny of t he L e a gue s t op l e a de r s t he m s e l ve s i nf l ue nc e d by w e s t e r n not i ons of a s e c ul a r na t i on s t a t e w a nt e d a ve r y l i m i t e d r ol e f or I s l a m i n t he go ve r nm e nt J i nna h hi m s e l f de c l a r e d i n a s pe e c h t hr e e da ys pr i or t o i nde pe nde nc e t ha t t he s t a t e w oul d ha ve no pa r t of r e l i gi ous l i f e i n P a ki s t a n, a nd t ha t r e l i gi ous m i nor i t i e s w oul d be f r e e t o p r a c t i c e t he i r f a i t hs ( B e c ke r 1995, 200 01 ) T he de m a nd f or a r e l i gi ous s t a t e w a s ve r y popul a r a m ong M us l i m s w ho ha d s uppor t e d t he L e a gue e s pe c i a l l y t he m a s s i ve r e f uge e popul a t i on t ha t ha d m i gr a t e d f r om M us l i m m i no r i t y a r e a s i n I ndi a I n a ddi t i on t o t hi s pr e s s ur e M us l i m r e l i gi ous l e a de r s t he U l a m a or c l a s s of M us l i m l e ga l s c hol a r s a nd a hos t of I s l a m i c or ga ni z a t i ons a l s o de m a nde d t he i nc l us i on of I s l a m i c pr i nc i pl e s i n t he c ons t i t ut i on, a s w e l l a s ba s i ng t he P a ki s t a ni l e ga l s ys t e m on S ha r i a L a w ( I s l a m 1 981, 58 ) T he s e r e l i g i ous or de r s a nd or ga ni z a t i ons ha d be e n i ns t r um e nt a l i n m obi l i z i ng publ i c s uppor t f o r t he M us l i m L e a gue dur i ng t he s t r ugg l e f o r i nde pe nde nc e a nd a l i e na t i ng t he m by i gnor i ng I s l a m i n t he c ons t i t ut i on w oul d t hr e a t e n t he L e a gue s hol d on p ow e r ( S a ye e d 1967 162 163 ) T he de a t h of M oha m m a d A l i J i nna h i n S e pt e m be r of 1948 de p r i ve d t he M us l i m L e a gue of t he i r m os t e xpe r i e nc e d a nd c ha r i s m a t i c l e a de r J i nna h s de a t h a l s o l e f t P a ki s t a n w i t hout a c l e a r s e ns e of di r e c t i on a nd m e a nt t he l os s t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y s s t r onge s t s uppor t e r of a s e c ul a r gove r nm e nt P r op one nt s of I s l a m i c gui da nc e f or t he P a ki s t a ni gove r nm e nt c i t e d t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of a gove r nm e nt i n M e di na by t he P r ophe t M uha m m a d a s w e l l a s t he M us l i m dom i na t e d pol i t i c a l s ys t e m of t he M ugha l E m pi r e a s pr e c e de nt s of a n I s l a m i c s t a t e A dvoc a t e s of a s e c ul a r s t a t e a r gue d t ha t t he gove r nm e nt of P a ki s t a n ha d t o be ba s e d upon a f e de r a l de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m t ha t w oul d uphol d

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118 i ndi vi dua l r i ght s a nd a l l ow f o r c ul t u r a l a ut onom y T he y a r gue d t ha t s uc h a s t a t e w oul d c r e a t e a n e nvi r onm e nt w he r e I s l a m c oul d t hr i ve w i t hout t hr e a t e ni ng m i nor i t i e s a nd a l i e na t i ng f or e i gn pow e r s ( W e i s s 1995, 1 28 29 ) T o pl a c a t e bot h f a c t i ons a nd pr ovi de s om e gui da nc e t o t he de a dl oc ke d C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y, P r i m e M i ni s t e r L i a qua t A l i K ha n pus he d t he O bj e c t i ve s R e s ol ut i on t hr ough t h e A s s e m bl y i n 1949. T he O bj e c t i ve s R e s ol ut i on w a s a n a t t e m pt t o e s t a bl i s h a ba s i c de f i ni t i on of t he P a ki s t a ni gove r n m e nt a nd pr ovi de a gui de l i ne f or t he f or m a t i on of t he c ons t i t ut i on. T he r e s ol ut i on c om bi ne s I s l a m i c pr i nc i pl e s w i t h w e s t e r n pol i t i c a l phi l os oph i e s e s t a bl i s hi ng t ha t t he pr i nc i pl e s o f de m oc r a c y, f r e e dom e qua l i t y t ol e r a nc e a nd s oc i a l j us t i c e a s e nunc i a t e d by I s l a m s ha l l be f ul l y obs e r ve d. T he R e s ol ut i on a l s o s t a t e d t ha t t he s ove r e i gnt y o f P a ki s t a n i s de r i ve d f r om A l l a h a nd I s l a m a nd t ha t t he gove r nm e nt ha s a ut hor i t y t o r ul e on t he s e f ounda t i ons T he doc um e nt a l s o de c l a r e s t ha t P a ki s t a n w oul d be a f e de r a t i on a nd e s t a bl i s he d ba s i c c i vi l r i ght s a nd pr ot e c t i ons f o r r e l i gi ous m i nor i t i e s ( M a hm ood 2000, 36 ) T he r e s ol ut i on pr ovi de s t he ba s i s f or i nc l udi ng I s l a m i c i nf l ue nc e s i n t he gove r nm e nt of P a ki s t a n, but s t i l l t he e xa c t r ol e r e m a i ne d unc l e a r T he t e ns i on be t w e e n I s l a m i c a nd s e c ul a r de f i ni t i ons o f na t i ona l i de nt i t y w oul d r e e m e r ge t i m e a nd t i m e a g a i n t hr oughout P a ki s t a n s hi s t or y, a l t hough t he O bj e c t i ve s R e s ol ut i on w oul d f i r m l y e s t a bl i s h t he r i ght o f I s l a m a s a pol i t i c a l f or c e i n s om e c a pa c i t y. D e s pi t e t he a dopt i on of I s l a m i c i nf l ue nc e i n t he O bj e c t i ve s R e s ol ut i on, t he ne e d f or e s t a bl i s hi ng s om e i de ol ogi c a l a nd m a t e r i a l ba s i s f or P a ki s t a ni na t i ona l i de nt i t y qui c kl y be c a m e a ppa r e nt a s t he f r a gi l e uni t y of t he i nde p e nde nc e m ove m e nt be ga n t o f r a c t ur e M a ny of t he p r ovi nc e s a nd pe opl e s t ha t n ow c om pos e d P a ki s t a n ha d onl y r e c e nt l y be gun t o s uppor t t he M us l i m L e a gue a nd t he i de a of a s e pa r a t e M us l i m s t a t e

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119 S i ndhi s B a l uc hs a nd P a kht uns o f t he N or t h W e s t F r ont i e r P r ovi nc e s udde nl y f ound t he m s e l ve s e t hni c m i nor i t i e s on t he pe r i phe r y o f a P unj a bi dom i na t e d pol i t i c a l c e nt e r E t hni c B e nga l i s w ho now f o r m e d t he e a s t w i ng of t he P a ki s t a ni s t a t e s oon f ound t he i r r e pr e s e nt a t i ve s i n t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y t o be i na de qua t e f or t he i r l a r ge popul a t i on, a nd be ga n t o w or r y a bout f ur t he r pol i t i c a l i s ol a t i on ( J a ha n 1972, 29 30 ) M a ny c a l l e d f or hi gh pr ovi nc i a l a ut onom y a nd pow e r s ha r i ng a r r a nge m e nt s be t w e e n t he t w o w i ngs M os t of t he L e a gue l e a de r s hi p dur i ng P a ki s t a n s f or m a t i ve ye a r s how e ve r f a vor e d a m or e c e nt r a l i z e d gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e a nd t he pr om ot i o n of a na t i ona l c ul t u r a l i de nt i t y M a ny m e m be r s of t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y a dvoc a t e d t he a dopt i on of U r du a s t he of f i c i a l l a ngua ge of t he s t a t e a nd e ve n s e t up s c hool s f or t e a c hi ng t he l a ngua ge i n non U r du s pe a ki ng a r e a s ( K ukr e j a 2003, 112 13 ) I n de s i gni ng t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e of P a ki s t a n, a t t e m pt s w e r e m a de t o di vi de t r i ba l p opu l a t i ons i nt o di f f e r e nt di s t r i c t s a s w e l l a s s uppl a nt t he pol i t i c a l a ut hor i t y of t r i ba l l e a de r s w i t h c ounc i l s a nd a dm i ni s t r a t or s a ppoi nt e d f r om t he c e nt e r T he s e a t t e m pt s a t bui l d i ng a uni f i e d c ul t ur a l i de nt i t y f or P a ki s t a n w e r e f i e r c e l y c ont e s t e d by e t hni c m i nor i t y popul a t i ons a nd onl y s e r ve d t o s t r e ngt he n s ub na t i ona l f or m s o f i de nt i t y a nd f e e l i ngs of a ni m os i t y t ow a r ds a pol i t i c a l s ys t e m dom i na t e d by P unj a bi s a nd M uha j i r s ( M us l i m s w ho ha d e m i gr a t e d f r om I ndi a ) ( H us s a i n 1976, 921 22 ) T h e P ak i s t an i C on s t i t u t i on a n d G ove r n a n c e S t r u c t u r e T he pr oc e s s of d r a f t i ng a de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i on i n P a ki s t a n w a s e xt r e m e l y pr ot r a c t e d, a s i ne xpe r i e nc e d a nd undi s c i pl i ne d e l i t e s s qua bbl e d ove r t he ba s i c c ha r a c t e r

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120 of t he ne w s t a t e a nd be c a m e pr e oc c upi e d w i t h m a i nt a i ni ng pow e r ( A hm a d 1970 164 65 ) F or t he f i r s t ni ne ye a r s of i nde pe nde nc e t he p ol i t i c a l s oc i e t y a nd gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e of P a ki s t a n w e r e ba s e d upon t he G ove r n m e nt of I ndi a A c t o f 1935 T he pr ovi s i ona l na t ur e of t he c ons t i t ut i on dur i ng P a ki s t a n s e a r l y ye a r s l e f t t he doc um e nt ope n t o r e vi s i on by t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y, w h o m odi f i e d t he A c t a s t he y s a w f i t unt i l t he a dopt i on of t he f i r s t P a ki s t a ni C ons t i t ut i on i n 1 956. U nde r t he m odi f i e d G ove r nm e nt of I ndi a A c t t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt w a s c om pos e d of a uni c a m e r a l l e gi s l a t ur e i n w hi c h s e a t s w e r e a s s i gne d by t he P r ovi nc i a l C ounc i l s f r o m e a c h s t a t e E a c h s t a t e w a s i n t he o r y gr a nt e d a s e a t s ha r e i n p r opor t i on t o t he s i z e of i t s popul a t i on, a l t hough i n p r a c t i c e a gr e a t e r s ha r e w a s gr a nt e d t o t he P unj a b a t t he e xpe ns e of t he ot he r s t a t e s A l t hough E a s t P a ki s t a n s popul a t i on w a s ove r t w i c e a s l a r ge a s t h a t of t he w e s t w i ng, t he r e gi on r e c e i ve d onl y t hi r t y t hr e e s e a t s i n t he A s s e m bl y, w i t h t w e nt y t w o f or t he P un j a b, a nd l e s s t ha n f i ve f or e a c h ot he r w e s t e r n s t a t e ( M a hm ood 2 000, 43 44 ) T he P r ovi nc i a l C ounc i l s t ha t f or m e d t he c e nt r a l i ns t i t ut i ons of t h e s t a t e gov e r nm e nt s w e r e di r e c t l y e l e c t e d on t he ba s i s of l i m i t e d s uf f r a ge a nd m e m be r s hi p t o t he s e c ounc i l s w a s dom i na t e d by l oc a l a r i s t oc r a c y a nd l a ndl or ds f o r m os t o f P a ki s t a n s f o r m a t i ve ye a r s ( B e c ke r 1995 208 ) C ons t a nt a m e ndm e nt s a nd c ha nge s m a de t o t he pr ovi s i ona l c ons t i t ut i on m e a nt t ha t ba s i c pr oc e dur e s of gove r na nc e f l uc t ua t e d c on s t a nt l y. T he di vi s i on o f pow e r be t w e e n t he na t i ona l a nd p r ovi nc i a l gove r nm e nt s w hi c h ha d a l r e a dy be e n he a vi l y s ke w e d t ow a r ds t he c e nt e r unde r t he G ove r nm e nt of I ndi a A c t w a s c ha nge d s e ve r a l t i m e s t o i nc r e a s e t he dom a i n of t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y. T he s e i nc r e a s e d pow e r s how e ve r w e r e not a ppl i e d e qua l l y a nd t he P r ov i n c i a l C ounc i l s i n t he P unj a b a nd N or t h W e s t F r ont i e r P r ovi nc e r e t a i ne d s ubs t a nt i a l a ut onom y ( H a qa nni 2005 54 5 5) T he

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121 pow e r a nd pr i vi l e ge s of t he e xe c ut i ve br a nc h a l s o c ha nge d dr a s t i c a l l y dur i ng t he f i r s t de c a de of P a ki s t a n s i nde pe nde nc e va c i l l a t i ng be t w e e n de s pot i s m a nd c om pl e t e a c qui e s c e nc e t o t he A s s e m bl y a c c or di ng t o t he pe r s ona l a m bi t i on of e a c h G ove r nor G e ne r a l E l e c t i ons t o t he P r ovi nc i a l C ounc i l s w e r e he l d i nf r e que nt l y, a nd non c ons e c ut i ve l y, pr e ve nt i ng t he f or m a t i on of a na t i on a l oppos i t i on pa r t y a nd a l l ow i ng t he L e a gue t o w e a t he r s m a l l pe r i odi c l os s e s ( A hm a d 1 970, 19 20 ) T he C ons t i t ut i on of P a ki s t a n a dopt e d i n 1956 a t t e m pt e d t o c r e a t e a s t a nda r di z e d pr oc e dur e of go ve r na nc e t ha t e l i m i na t e d m a ny of t he r e c ur r i ng pr obl e m s a nd po i nt s of di s a gr e e m e nt t ha t ha d ke pt t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y i n de a dl oc k. T he C ons t i t ut i on c r e a t e d a f e de r a l s t r uc t u r e w i t h a hi gh de g r e e of pr ovi nc i a l a ut onom y. T he na t i ona l a nd s t a t e gove r nm e nt s w oul d be ba s e d on a pa r l i a m e nt a r y s ys t e m i n w hi c h a P r i m e M i ni s t e r w a s e l e c t e d by t he l e gi s l a t ur e a nd w oul d s e r ve a s t he de f a c t o e xe c ut i ve T he pos i t i on o f gove r nor ge ne r a l w a s r e pl a c e d by t he P r e s i de nt of P a ki s t a n, w ho w a s a ppoi nt e d by a n e l e c t or a l c ol l e ge c ons i s t i ng of a l l m e m be r s of t he P r ovi s i ona l C ounc i l s U nde r t he 1956 c ons t i t ut i on, t he pow e r s o f t he e xe c ut i ve br a nc h w e r e s ubs t a nt i a l l y r e duc e d. T he P r e s i de nt w a s t o s e r ve m a i nl y a s a c e r e m oni a l he a d of s t a t e but t he of f i c e s t i l l r e t a i ne d s om e de gr e e of c ont r o l ove r t he l e gi s l a t ur e A r t i c l e 37 of t he P a ki s t a ni C ons t i t ut i on a l l ow s t he P r e s i de nt di s c r e t i ona r y pow e r i n a ppoi n t i ng a P r i m e M i ni s t e r i n t he a bs e nc e of a c l e a r pa r l i a m e nt a r y m a j or i t y by one pa r t y ( S a ye e d 1967, 81 82 ) U nde r t he e l e c t or a l s ys t e m e s t a bl i s h e d by t he c ons t i t ut i on, t he P r ovi nc i a l C ounc i l s w e r e di r e c t l y e l e c t e d on t he ba s i s of uni ve r s a l a dul t s uf f r a ge S e a t s i n t he n a t i ona l l e gi s l a t ur e w e r e t he n a s s i gne d by t he P r ov i nc i a l C ounc i l s m a i nt a i ni ng t he s ys t e m of i nd i r e c t e l e c t i ons e s t a bl i s he d by t he G ove r nm e nt of I ndi a A c t T he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y be c a m e t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y,

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122 r e t a i ni ng i t s s i ngl e c ha m be r but r e a ppor t i oni ng t he s e a t s a l l ot t e d t o e a c h s t a t e E a s t P a ki s t a n s s e a t s ha r e w a s r a i s e d t o f or t y f our m a ki ng i t e qua l t o t he c om bi ne d s e a t s of a l l s t a t e s i n t he w e s t e r n w i ng ( C houdhur y 1956, 245 46) I n t he f e de r a l s t r uc t ur e e s t a bl i s he d by t he c ons t i t ut i on, t he bo r de r s of pr e pa r t i t i on s t a t e s r e m a i ne d, a nd e a c h s t a t e w a s gr a nt e d a ut onom y ove r c e r t a i n e c onom i c s e c t or s a s w e l l a s r e ve nue l a w s E a s t P a ki s t a n w a s a c c or de d s pe c i a l s t a t us w i t h a hi ghe r de g r e e o f a ut onom y a s w e l l a s pr ovi s i ons r e s e r vi ng c i vi l s e r vi c e pos i t i ons f o r B e nga l i s B ot h U r du a nd B e nga l i w e r e na m e d a s t he na t i ona l l a ngua ge s of P a ki s t a n, a l t hough t he c ons t i t ut i on r e c ogni z e d no ot he r r e gi ona l l a ngua ge ( K ukr e j a 2003, 14 15 ) T he c ons t i t ut i on of 1956 a l s o e s t a bl i s he d m a ny ba s i c c i vi l r i ght s a nd l i be r t i e s a nd c l a r i f i e d p r ot e c t i o ns f or r e l i gi ous m i nor i t i e s f r om t he O bj e c t i ve s R e s ol ut i on. T he 1956 c ons t i t ut i on e ns hr i ne d I s l a m a s t he s t a t e r e l i gi on a nd p r ovi de d t he ba s i s f or a m ode l of na t i ona l i de nt i t y r oo t e d i n a c om m i t m e nt t o r e l i gi on. T he c ons t i t ut i on de s c r i be s P a ki s t a n a s a n I s l a m i c R e publ i c a nd de c l a r e s t ha t no l a w s ha l l be e na c t e d w hi c h i s r e pugna nt t o t he i nj unc t i ons o f I s l a m a s l a i d dow n i n t he Q ur 'a n a nd S unna h ( C ons t i t ut i on of P a ki s t a n 1956 ) O t he r r e l i g i ous pr ovi s i ons i nc l ude d ba ns on t he pr oduc t i on a nd c ons um pt i o n o f a l c ohol m a ki ng t h e s t udy of t he Q ur a n m a nda t or y f or a l l M us l i m s a nd ba r r i ng non M us l i m s f r o m t op e l e c t e d pos i t i ons ( B a xt e r 1974 1077 ) A l t hough t he P a ki s t a ni C ons t i t ut i on of 1956 a ddr e s s e d m a ny of t he pr ob l e m s t ha t ha d pl a gue d e a r l y P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c s i t s s hor t l i f e s pa n i l l us t r a t e s t he f a c t t ha t unde m oc r a t i c be ha vi or ha d a l r e a dy be c om e i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d. H o w e ve r t he f r a m e w or k a nd gui di ng i de ol ogy of P a ki s t a n s f i r s t de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i on w oul d s e r ve a s a n i n f l ue nc e

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123 t hr oughout t he na t i on s hi s t or y a s s ubs e que nt de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s a t t e m pt e d t o c r e a t e m or e s t a bl e a nd e f f i c i e nt s ys t e m s of gove r na nc e T h e E vol u t i o n of P a k i s t a n i D e m oc r ac y T he c ha os c onf us i on, a nd l a c k o f de m oc r a t i c pr i nc i pl e s a nd pr oc e dur e s dur i ng t he f or m a t i ve ye a r s of P a ki s t a n pr ovi de d a r oc ky g r ound f o r de m oc r a c y t o t a ke r oo t A s t he pol i t i c a l s ys t e m a nd gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e c ont i nue d t o e vol ve P a ki s t a ni de m oc r a c y w oul d be r e pe a t e dl y s t a l l e d o r s uppr e s s e d by a va r i e t y of pol i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l f o r c e s C hi e f a m ong t he s e t hr e a t s ha s be e n t he pow e r f ul p opul a r a nd pol i t i c i z e d P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y, w hi c h ha s s uppl a nt e d de m oc r a t i c pol i t i c s w i t h a ut hor i t a r i a n r e gi m e s t hr e e t i m e s i n t he l a s t s i x de c a de s C om m i t m e nt s t o de m oc r a c y i n P a ki s t a n ha ve r e m a i ne d, how e ve r a nd pol i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l p r e s s ur e s ha ve r e s ul t e d i n t he di s s ol ut i on of P a ki s t a n s m i l i t a r y di c t a t or s hi ps a nd t he f or m a t i on of ne w c i vi l i a n gov e r nm e nt s T he r e pe a t e d c yc l e s of m i l i t a r y i nt e r ve nt i on i n publ i c l i f e t he f a i l u r e t o r e s ol ve i s s ue s of s ub na t i ona l i de nt i t y a nd t he c ons i s t e nt i ne f f i c i e nc y of de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt s ha s pr e ve nt e d t he c ons ol i da t i on of de m oc r a c y i n P a ki s t a n. T r a c i ng t he e vol ut i on of t he P a ki s t a ni po l i t i c a l s ys t e m a s w e l l a s va r i ous or ga ns of t he s t a t e ove r t he ye a r s w i l l s he d l i ght on t he or i gi ns of P a ki s t a ni de m oc r a c y s w e a k poi nt s a nd a ut hor i t a r i a n t e nde nc i e s a s w e l l a s t he pr oc e s s e s by w hi c h t he s e c ondi t i ons ha ve c ont i nue d t o r e a s s e r t t he m s e l ve s

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124 1947 1958: C on f l i c t C or r u p t i on an d C h aos i n t h e F i r s t D e m oc r at i c E r a M a ny of t he ge ne r a l c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of P a ki s t a n s f i r s t de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e ha ve be e n e num e r a t e d i n t he pr e c e di ng s e c t i ons T he P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c a l s ys t e m dur i ng t h i s pe r i od w a s pl a gue d by e t hni c a nd i de ol ogi c a l f a c t i ona l i s m a l a c k o f i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d pr oc e dur e s a nd s pe c i f i e d a ut hor i t y t ha t a l l ow e d f o r unde m oc r a t i c e l i t e be ha vi or W hi l e t he s e c ha ot i c pa r a m e t e r s pr e c l ude d t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of i ns t i t ut i ona l ba r r i e r s t o l i m i t a ut hor i t a r i a n pr a c t i c e s m a ny de c i s i ons pol i c i e s a nd i ndi vi dua l e l i t e s du r i ng t hi s pe r i od w oul d ha ve a dr a m a t i c i m pa c t on t he di r e c t i on of t he P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s T he de a t h of M uha m m a d A l i J i nna h i n 1948 de pr i ve d t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt of i t s m os t pow e r f ul pol i t i c i a n a nd m os t i n f l ue nt i a l f i gur e W i t hout hi s gui da nc e a nd do m i na t i on of t he pol i t i c a l pr oc e s s t he f a ul t l i ne s w i t hi n t he L e a g ue qui c kl y e m e r ge d, a nd s ubs e que nt l e a de r s l a c ke d J i nna h s a bi l i t y t o m e di a t e be t w e e n gr oups a nd i nt e r e s t s F ol l ow i ng J i nna h s de a t h, L i a qua t A l i K ha n, i n h i s r ol e a s P r i m e M i ni s t e r t ook ove r a s t he he a d of s t a t e K ha n a ppoi nt e d K ha w a j a N a z i m uddi n a s G ove r nor G e ne r a l U nde r K ha n s l e a de r s hi p, t he m i l i t a r y a nd bur e a u c r a c y w e r e qui c kl y e xpa nde d a nd put t o w or k he a l i ng t he w ounds of p a r t i t i on a nd bu i l di ng t he ne w s t a t e of P a ki s t a n. A l t hough de f e ns e s pe ndi ng dur i ng K ha n s a dm i ni s t r a t i on w a s e xc e e di ngl y hi gh, r e a c hi ng 70% o f t he budge t i n s om e ye a r s t h e P r i m e M i ni s t e r q ui c kl y r e c ogni z e d t he ne e d f or e xt e r na l s uppor t f or t he P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y. K ha n e s t a bl i s he d di pl om a t i c t i e s w i t h t he U ni t e d S t a t e s j oi ni ng a s e r i e s of de f e ns e pa c t s a ga i ns t t he S ovi e t U ni on i n e xc ha nge f or f unds a nd t e c hnol ogy t o bol s t e r P a ki s t a n s m i l i t a r y ( S ha h 2002 68 ) A l t hough K ha n w a s a bl e t o e s t a bl i s h s om e de gr e e of c ons e ns us a nd s t a bi l i t y f or t he

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125 pol i t i c a l s ys t e m m a ny o f hi s pol i c i e s a l i e n a t e d e t h ni c m i nor i t i e s c r e a t i ng o r s t r e ngt he ni ng a va r i e t y o f e t hni c na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s K ha n i n i t i a t e d a pol i c y of s e t t l i ng r e f uge e s f r om I ndi a i n f a r m l a nd a ba ndone d by S i khs a nd H i ndus dur i ng pa r t i t i on I n s om e c a s e s M uha j i r s w e r e m a de l a ndl or ds i n a r e a s s uc h a s S i ndh a nd B a l uc hi s t a n, a nge r i ng t he l oc a l popu l a t i ons R e c r ui t m e nt f o r t h e C S P w a s a l s o he a vi l y s ke w e d t ow a r ds M uha j i r s a nd P unj a bi s a nd t he P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y w a s r e c r ui t e d a l m os t e xc l us i ve l y f r om t he P unj a b a nd t he P a s ht un t r i be s of t he N or t h W e s t F r ont i e r P r ovi nc e f ol l ow i ng t he m a r t i a l r a c e s pol i c y of t he B r i t i s h ( D a e c hs e l 1997, 145 ) S e c e s s i oni s t m ove m e nt s e m e r ge d i n m a ny pa r t s of P a ki s t a n dur i ng t hi s pe r i od, m os t not a bl y a l ong t he P a ki s t a n A f gha ni s t a n bor d e r M a ny t r i ba l gr oups de m a nde d t he r i ght t o s e c e de f r om P a ki s t a n o r j oi n A f gha ni s t a n. T he s e a gi t a t i ons w e r e br ut a l l y put dow n by t he P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y a nd i n 1951 L i a qu a t A l i K ha n w a s a s s a s s i na t e d by a r a di c a l A f gha ni na t i ona l K ha n s de a t h m e a nt t he l os s of a not he r pow e r f u l a nd i n f l ue nt i a l l e a de r a nd t he di vi s i ons w i t hi n t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y gr e w w i de r w i t hou t K ha n s di pl om a t i c s ki l l s ( M a hm ood 2000, 34 ) N a z i m udd i n, w a s e l e c t e d a s t he ne xt P r i m e M i ni s t e r by t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y, a nd w a s r e pl a c e d a s G ove r nor G e ne r a l by G hul a m M oha m m a d. T he e l e c t i on of N a z i m uddi n, a B e nga l i a nd M oha m m a d, a P unj a bi t o t he t op pos i t i ons i n t he P a ki s t a ni gove r nm e nt w a s m e a nt a s a c om pr om i s e t o e a s e t he i nc r e a s i ngl y c onf l i c t ua l r e l a t i ons hi p be t w e e n E a s t a nd W e s t P a ki s t a n. I ns t e a d, t he l a c k of e s t a bl i s he d pr oc e dur e s a nd i l l de f i ne d r ol e s f or va r i ous pos i t i ons a l l ow e d f or t he r e gi ona l pow e r s t r uggl e t o m a ni f e s t i t s e l f i n c onf l i c t s be t w e e n t he e xe c ut i ve a nd l e gi s l a t i ve br a nc he s A s t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y be c a m e m or e de a dl oc ke d ove r t he de s i gn of t he c ons t i t ut i on, publ i c p r e s s ur e be ga n t o m ount a ga i n s t t he i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt T he

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126 P a ki s t a ni popul a t i on, a nge r e d by t he i ne f f i c i e nc y o f t he s t a t e a nd c onc e r ns ove r e t hni c a ut onom y, e r upt e d i nt o p r ot e s t s a nd r i ot s ( B a xt e r 1 995, 67 68 ) T he L e a g ue dom i na t e d A s s e m bl y, l a c ki ng t he l e a de r s hi p t ha t b r ought t he pa r t y t o pow e r i nc r e a s i ngl y t ur ne d t o t he m i l i t a r y a nd bur e a uc r a c y f or bo t h t he de s i gn a n d i m pl e m e nt a t i on o f va r i ous po l i c i e s T he i nc r e a s i ngl y pol i t i c a l r ol e p l a ye d by t he c i vi l s e r vi c e a l l o w e d G ove r nor G e ne r a l M oha m m a d, t he f o r m e r he a d o f t he C S P t o i nc r e a s e hi s pow e r ove r t he l e gi s l a t i ve pr oc e s s I n 1953 P r i m e M i ni s t e r N a z i m uddi n a t t e m pt e d t o pa s s a r e s ol ut i on l i m i t i ng t he pow e r s of t he G ove r no r G e ne r a l a nd e s t a bl i s hi ng t he A s s e m bl y a s t h e c e nt r a l pow e r o f t he P a ki s t a ni S t a t e U s i ng t he pow e r s a nd pr i vi l e g e s gr a nt e d t o t he G ove r nor G e ne r a l by t he 1935 c ons t i t ut i on, M oha m m a d di s m i s s e d N a z i m uddi n. M oha m m a d t he n a ppoi nt e d M oha m m a d A l i B ogr a a m i nor pa r t y f unc t i ona r y f r om E a s t P a ki s t a n t o t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r s hi p, i n or de r t o pl a c a t e t he B e nga l i s e nr a ge d ove r t he d i s m i s s a l of N a z i m uddi n ( K ukr e j a 2003, 46) B ogr a pr ove d hi m s e l f t o be a r e m a r ka bl y s ki l l f ul p ol i t i c i a n, qui c kl y f or m ul a t i ng a pl a n f or t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e t ha t i nvol ve d a f e de r a l s ys t e m a nd pow e r s ha r i ng pr ovi s i ons t ha t a c hi e ve d w i de s pr e a d s uppor t i n t he A s s e m bl y. B ogr a s pl a n w a s ne ve r t o c om e t o f r ui t i on, a s i t w e nt a ga i ns t G hul a m M oha m m a d s de s i r e f or a uni t a r y gove r nm e nt ( A hm a d 1970 163 64 ) F ol l ow i ng t h e 1954 pr ovi nc i a l e l e c t i ons i n E a s t P a ki s t a n, w he n t he A w a m i L e a gue c r us he d t he M u s l i m L e a gue on a pl a t f or m of e ns ur i ng gr e a t e r a ut onom y, M oha m m a d de c l a r e d gove r nor s r ul e a nd, w i t h t he s uppor t o f t he bur e a uc r a c y a nd m i l i t a r y di s s ol ve d t he C ons t i t ue n t A s s e m bl y. T he a s s e m b l y w a s r e pl a c e d by a C a bi ne t of T a l e nt s a ppoi nt e d by t he G ove r nor G e ne r a l t ha t i nc l ude d pol i t i c i a ns bur e a uc r a t s a nd m i l i t a r y of f i c e r s B ogr a a nd s e ve r a l ot he r m e m be r s of t he

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127 f or m e r C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y j oi ne d t he C a bi ne t a s w e l l a s M a j or G e ne r a l I s ka nd e r M i r z a a nd C om m a nde r i n C hi e f o f t he A r m y A yu b K ha n ( M a hm ood 2000 45 46 ) T he C a bi ne t of T a l e nt s w a s t o f or m a pow e r f ul a nd i nd e pe nde nt e xe c ut i ve br a nc h t ha t w oul d gui de t he c ons t i t ut i on dr a f t i ng p r oc e s s w he n t he s e c ond C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y w a s c onve n e d i n 1955. T he ne w C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y c ons i s t e d of m e m be r s t ha t ha d be e n e l e c t e d dur i ng t he 1954 e l e c t i ons i n t he P unj a b a nd E a s t P a ki s t a n, w hi l e r e pr e s e nt a t i ve s f r om B a l uc hi s t a n, t he f r on t i e r s t a t e s a nd t r i ba l a r e a s w e r e a ppoi nt e d by t he G ove r nor G e n e r a l ( S a ye e d 1967, 38 39 ) T he c om bi na t i on of a dom i na t i ng e xe c ut i ve br a nc h, a m o r e uni f i e d M us l i m L e a gue a nd t he pr e s e nc e of t he A w a m i L e a gue po l i t i c i a ns e l e c t e d f r om E a s t P a ki s t a n l e d t o t he qui c k a dopt i on of t he f e de r a l s t r uc t ur e pa r l i a m e nt a r y s ys t e m a nd pr ot e c t i on of r i ght s a nd f r e e dom s e num e r a t e d i n t he 1956 c ons t i t ut i on ( C houdhur y 1956, 246 ) T he c ons t i t ut i on w a s t o ha ve a s hor t l i f e s pa n due t o t he c ont i nua t i on of unde m oc r a t i c be ha vi or e s pe c i a l l y on t he pa r t o f t he P r e s i de nt of P a ki s t a n. G hul a m M oha m m a d r e s i gne d f ol l ow i ng t he a dopt i on o f t he c ons t i t ut i on a nd w a s r e pl a c e d by t he pol i t i c a l l y a m bi t i ous G e ne r a l I s ka nde r M i r z a M i r z a c ont i nu e d t o e xe r c i s e a hi gh de gr e e of c ont r ol ove r t he l e gi s l a t i ve pr oc e s s de s pi t e t he l i m i t e d r ol e pr ovi de d f o r t he e xe c ut i ve br a nc h i n t he 1956 c ons t i t ut i on. T he m i l i t a r y s r ol e i n c i vi l i a n pol i t i c s t ha t ha d be e n gr ow i ng s i nc e 1951 pr ovi de d M i r z a w i t h a nu m be r o f a l l i e s w i t hi n t he A s s e m bl y w ho s uppor t e d hi s a bus e s of pow e r M i r z a a nd t he m i l i t a r y i n ge ne r a l w e r e a l s o s t r ong l y s uppor t e d by t he bur e a uc r a c y, a nd c i vi l i a n pol i t i c i a ns of t e n ne e de d t he s uppor t of t he C S P t o pa s s bi l l s a nd i ns t i t ut e ne w pol i c i e s ( D i a m ond 2000 93 ) T he pe r i od be t w e e n 1956 1958 s a w t he e m e r ge nc e of s e ve r a l pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a nd a n e r os i on of publ i c s uppor t f or t he M us l i m

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128 L e a gue T he A w a m i L e a gue be c a m e t he dom i na nt pa r t y i n E a s t P a ki s t a n, w hi l e T he R e publ i c a n P a r t y, t he l e f t w i ng N a t i ona l A w a m i P a r t y, a nd s e ve r a l r e l i gi ous pa r t i e s s uc h a s t he J a m m a t A l I s l a m i di v i de d t he s e a t s i n t he w e s t ( B e c ke r 1995, 209 ) A l t hough t he r i s e of a c om pe t i t i ve pa r t y s ys t e m r e pr e s e nt e d a gr e a t s t r i de f or w a r d i n t he P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s t he a bs e nc e of di s c i pl i ne a m ong e l i t e s a s w e l l a s r e gi ona l a nd e t hni c di vi de s c r e a t e d a n e xt r e m e l y f r a c t i ous i ne f f e c t i ve a nd unpopul a r pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y. I n t w o ye a r s t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y e l e c t e d a nd br ou ght dow n t he gove r nm e nt s of f our P r i m e M i ni s t e r s f r om t hr e e di f f e r e nt po l i t i c a l pa r t i e s ( S c hul e r 1966 47 48 ) C i t i ng t he c or r upt i on a nd i ns t a bi l i t y of P a ki s t a n s de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt P r e s i de nt I s ka nde r M i r z a di s s ol ve d t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y a nd de c l a r e d m a r t i a l l a w i n O c t obe r of 1958 w i t h t he una ni m ous s uppor t of t he m i l i t a r y a nd bu r e a uc r a c y. M i r z a s di c t a t or s hi p w a s qui c kl y s uppl a nt e d, how e ve r w he n A yub K ha n, t he C om m a nde r i n C hi e f of t he P a ki s t a ni A r m e d F or c e s pr e s s ur e d hi m t o r e s i gn, be gi nni ng P a ki s t a n s f i r s t pe r i od of m i l i t a r y r ul e ( W r i ght 1966, 586) 1958 1969: L i m i t e d D e m oc r ac y an d M i l i t ar y R u l e W i t h t he i m pos i t i on of m a r t i a l l a w t he m i l i t a r y g ove r nm e nt be ga n t o c r a c k dow n on oppos i t i on g r oups i n t he c ount r y C i vi l s e r va nt s a nd e l e m e nt s of t he m i l i t a r y oppos e d t o K ha n s r e gi m e w e r e pur ge d, a nd a s e r i e s of or di na nc e s w e r e i s s ue d t ha t pr ovi de d t he P r e s i de nt w i t h b r oa d pow e r s t o s hut d ow n pr e s s out l e t s a nd c i vi l s oc i e t y or ga ni z a t i ons ( Z i r i ng 1971 26) M os t i m por t a nt l y t he E l e c t i ve B odi e s D i s qua l i f i c a t i on O r de r ( E B O D O ) s e t up m i l i t a r y t r i buna l s t o t r y t he pol i t i c i a ns w ho s e r ve d i n t he na t i ona l

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129 a nd pr ovi nc i a l a s s e m bl i e s T he t r i buna l s w e r e gi v e n w i de r a ngi ng a ut ho r i t y t o c onvi c t pol i t i c i a ns of va r i ous poo r l y de f i ne d c r i m e s U nde r E B O D O pol i t i c i a ns f a c i ng c ha r ge s c oul d a voi d pr os e c ut i on by a gr e e i ng not t o r un f o r publ i c of f i c e f or a pe r i od of s e ve n ye a r s A ppr oxi m a t e l y 7, 000 f o r m e r pol i t i c i a ns i n c l udi ng t he f o r m e r P r i m e M i ni s t e r w e r e t r i e d by t he E B O D O t r i buna l s ( B a xt e r 1995, 44 45 ) K ha n qui c kl y i ns t i t ut e d a hi ghl y c e nt r a l i z e d go ve r nm e nt t ha t l e f t m os t o f t he a dm i ni s t r a t i on of P a ki s t a n i n t he ha nds of hi s a l l i e s i n t he bur e a uc r a c y w hi l e he w i e l de d e xt e ns i ve pow e r s a s P r e s i de nt K ha n ha d s e i z e d pow e r by c l a i m i ng t o oppos e M i r z a a nd pr om i s i ng a qui c k r e t ur n t o a c ons t i t ut i ona l s ys t e m W he n t he s e pr om i s e s w e r e not m e t publ i c di s c ont e nt be ga n t o g r ow F e a r i ng r e vol t s K ha n a nnounc e d pl a n s f or d r a f t i ng a ne w c ons t i t ut i on i n 1960 ( B e c ke r 1995 219) B e t w e e n 1960 a nd 1962, a n e l e ve n m e m be r c om m i s s i on a ppoi nt e d by t he P r e s i de nt a t t e m pt e d t o dr a f t a c ons t i t ut i on t ha t w oul d r e s ol ve t he i ns t a bi l i t y a nd i ne f f i c i e nc y t ha t ha d l e d t o t he c ol l a ps e of P a ki s t a n s f i r s t de m oc r a c y by l i m i t i ng de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons a nd r e t a i ni ng m i l i t a r y r ul e K ha n ha d ul t i m a t e a ut hor i t y ove r t he c ons t i t ut i on s f i na l f o r m a nd m a ny p r ovi s i ons e s t a bl i s hi ng l i m i t s t o P r e s i de nt i a l pow e r a nd a s t r ong l e gi s l a t ur e w e r e ve t oe d ( Z i r i ng 1971, 38 39 ) U nde r t he 1962 c ons t i t ut i on, P a ki s t a n w a s di vi de d i nt o a dm i ni s t r a t i ve uni t s c a l l e d U ni ons e a c h c ont a i ni ng a popul a t i on o f 10 000. E a c h U ni on w a s ove r s e e n by U ni on C ounc i l s c ons i s t i ng of t e n di r e c t l y e l e c t e d of f i c i a l s a nd f i ve of f i c i a l s a ppoi nt e d by t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt ( B a xt e r 1995 49 50) M e m be r s of t he U ni on C ounc i l s a ppoi nt e d of f i c i a l s t o pos i t i ons i n t he di s t r i c t p r ovi nc i a l a nd na t i ona l a s s e m bl i e s T he 1 962 c ons t i t ut i on c r e a t e d a p r e s i de nt i a l s ys t e m t ha t c ons i s t e d of a 156 m e m be r N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y a nd s pe c i a l pow e r s f or t he

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130 P r e s i de nt t ha t i nc l ude d p r ot e c t i on f r om i m pe a c hm e nt c ont r ol ove r va r i ous a s pe c t s of t he l e gi s l a t i ve pr oc e s s a nd t he a bi l i t y t o i s s ue or di na n c e s a nd de c l a r e m a r t i a l l a w w i t hout t he c ons e nt of t he a s s e m bl y ( M a hm ood 2000, 72) T h e P r e s i de nt w a s e l e c t e d by a n 80 000 m e m be r E l e c t or a l C ol l e ge c ons i s t i ng of a l l e l e c t e d a nd a ppoi nt e d of f i c i a l s f r om a l l l e ve l s of gove r nm e nt U nde r t he ne w c ons t i t ut i on t he P r e s i de nt a nd N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y w oul d be a s s i s t e d by t he A dvi s or y C ounc i l of I s l a m i c I de ol ogy a nd t he I s l a m i c R e s e a r c h I ns t i t ut e t o e ns ur e t ha t l a w s a nd pol i c i e s r e m a i ne d i n ke e pi ng w i t h r e l i gi ous doc t r i ne ( A hm a d 1970, 190 91 ) N e w e l e c t i ons w e r e he l d a f t e r t he a dopt i on of t he 1962 c ons t i t ut i on. P ol i t i c a l pa r t i e s w e r e out l a w e d by t h e m i l i t a r y r e gi m e a nd K ha n s s uppor t e r s a nd a l l i e s e a s i l y dom i na t e d t he e l e c t i on s R e s t r i c t i ons on f or m i ng pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s w e r e r e m ove d f ol l ow i ng t he 1962 e l e c t i ons a nd a c om pe t i t i ve i f r e s t r i c t e d pa r t y s ys t e m be ga n t o r e e m e r ge be t w e e n 1962 a nd t he P r e s i de nt i a l e l e c t i on of 1965 K ha n f or m e d t he P a ki s t a n M us l i m L e a gue out of e l e m e n t s of t he o l d M us l i m L e a gue f o r m e r c i vi l s e r va nt s a nd a ne w ge ne r a t i on o f e m e r gi ng p ol i t i c i a ns D ue t o E B O D O m os t of t he pol i t i c i a ns f r om P a ki s t a n s f i r s t de m oc r a t i c e r a w e r e di s qua l i f i e d f r om o f f i c e a nd t he oppos i t i on pa r t i e s w e r e f o r m e d a nd r un l a r ge l y by younge r l a w ye r s a nd pr o f e s s i ona l s w i t h l i t t l e e xpe r i e nc e w i t h de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s of gove r na nc e ( Z i r i ng 1971, 67 69 ) I n t he 1965 e l e c t i ons t he m a i n oppos i t i on pa r t i e s j oi ne d t oge t he r uni t i ng be hi nd pr e s i de nt i a l c a ndi da t e F a t i m a J i nna h a nd r u nni ng on a p l a t f or m of l i m i t i ng K ha n s pow e r a nd r e t u r ni ng t o a pa r l i a m e nt a r y s ys t e m T he uni t e d oppos i t i on c oa l i t i on l os t t o K ha n, but s e c ur e d n e a r l y 40% of t he vot e de m ons t r a t i ng a c l e a r e r os i on of K ha n s s uppor t ( K ukr e j 2003, 98) K ha n s de c l i ne i n s upp or t w a s gr e a t l y e xa c e r ba t e d by P a ki s t a n s l os s i n t he 1965 w a r w i t h I ndi a w hi c h s ha t t e r e d publ i c f a i t h i n t he gove r nm e nt

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131 a nd c r e a t e d hos t i l i t y t o K ha n w i t hi n t he m i l i t a r y. W i de s pr e a d pr ot e s t s a nd r i ot s e r upt e d a c r os s t he na t i on f ol l ow i ng t he s i gni ng o f t he pe a c e t r e a t y i n T a s hke nt M i l i t a r y s uppr e s s i on of t he s e m ove m e nt s f ur t he r a l i e na t e d t he publ i c a s w e l l a s m a ny p r om i ne nt m e m be r s of K ha n s a dm i ni s t r a t i on I n F e br ua r y 1 966, f o r m e r M i ni s t e r of F or e i gn A f f a i r s Z ul f i qa r B hut t o a nd A w a m i L e a gue pr e s i de nt S he i kh M uj i bur R a hm a n c onve ne d a c onf e r e nc e f or a l l P a ki s t a n s oppos i t i on pa r t i e s t o c r e a t e a uni f i e d m e s s a ge C a pi t a l i z i ng on publ i c di s c ont e nt e s pe c i a l l y a m ong t he poor a n d e t hni c m i nor i t i e s t he uni t e d oppos i t i on de m a nde d t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of uni ve r s a l a dul t f r a nc hi s e r e gi ona l a ut ono m y, a nd t he r e t ur n of a pa r l i a m e nt a r y s ys t e m ( Z i r i ng 1 971, 73) A s a nt i gove r n m e nt r i o t s a nd m i l i t a r y r e pr e s s i on c ont i nue d, K ha n s t e ppe d dow n f r om o f f i c e f ol l ow i ng p r e s s ur e f r om t he oppos i t i on a s w e l l a s hi s ow n ge ne r a l s I n M a r c h of 1969 m a r t i a l l a w w a s de c l a r e d a s G e ne r a l Y a hya K ha n a s s um e d t he pr e s i de nc y. Y a hya K ha n di s s ol ve d t he 1962 c ons t i t ut i on a nd pr om i s e d t ha t e l e c t i ons ba s e d on u ni ve r s a l s uf f r a ge f o r a ne w c ons t i t ue nt a s s e m bl y w oul d be he l d no l a t e r t ha n O c t obe r 197 0 ( B a xt e r 1995 54 55 ) 1969 1977: N at i on al C r i s e s an d A u t h or i t ar i an B e h avi or i n a D e m oc r at i c S ys t e m T he e l e c t i ons t o t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y w e r e de l a ye d unt i l D e c e m be r f ol l ow i ng a de va s t a t i ng c yc l one t ha t r a va ge d E a s t P a ki s t a n. A n e l e c t or a l c om m i s s i on a ppoi nt e d by t he P r e s i de nt t ha t i nc l ude d m e m be r s of t he oppos i t i on r e de s i gne d t he P a ki s t a ni e l e c t or a l s ys t e m e s t a bl i s hi ng ne a r l y uni v e r s a l a dul t s uf f r a ge a nd a s s i gni ng s e a t s f or e a c h pr ovi nc e ba s e d on i t s pr opor t i on of t he popul a t i on. I n t he ne w s ys t e m t he f our p r ovi nc e s of W e s t P a ki s t a n r e c e i ve d a t ot a l o f 138 s e a t s i n t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y.

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132 E a s t P a ki s t a n w a s gr a nt e d 162 s e a t s a nd s i x s e a t s i n e a c h w i ng w e r e r e s e r ve d f or w om e n ( B a xt e r 1995, 83) D u r i ng t he 1970 ge ne r a l e l e c t i on c a m pa i gn, t he A w a m i L e a gue c a pi t a l i z e d on E a s t P a ki s t a n s a nge r ove r t he s l ow a i d r e s pons e f ol l ow i ng t he de va s t a t i ng c yc l one a nd vow e d t o s e c ur e hi ghe r po l i t i c a l e c onom i c a nd c ul t u r a l a ut onom y I n t he W e s t B hut t o f or m e d t he l e f t i s t P a ki s t a n P e opl e s P a r t y ( P P P ) a nd r a l l i e d t he s uppor t of r ur a l pe a s a nt s a nd ur ba n poo r by pr om i s i ng s oc i a l i s t e c onom i c pol i c i e s a nd s oc i a l pr ogr a m s ( B ur ki 1980, 23 24 ) I n t he E a s t t he A w a m i L e a gue dom i na t e d t he e l e c t i ons w i nni ng 160 of t he p r ovi nc e s 162 s e a t s a nd s e c ur i ng a m a j or i t y i n t he 312 m e m be r C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y. B hut t o s P P P w on 81 s e a t s m os t o f t he m i n P un j a b a nd S i ndh ( M a hm ood 2000, 109 10 ) T he P a ki s t a ni ge ne r a l e l e c t i on of 1970 w a s t he f i r s t na t i onw i de e l e c t i on c onduc t e d on t he ba s i s of uni ve r s a l f r a nc hi s e a nd one pe r s on one vot e pr i nc i pl e s U nf or t una t e l y, t he s a m e l a c k of pol i t i c a l e xpe r i e nc e a nd f a i t h i n de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s t ha t doom e d P a ki s t a n s f i r s t de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt r e e m e r ge d i n t he ne w po l i t i c a l l e a de r s hi p. H a vi ng w on a m a j or i t y o f s e a t s t he A w a m i L e a gue w a s i nvi t e d by P r e s i de nt K ha n t o f o r m t he gove r nm e nt T hi s de c i s i on w a s f i e r c e l y r e s i s t e d by B hut t o, w ho c l a i m e d t ha t t he P P P s s uc c e s s i n t he w e s t m e a nt t ha t t he r e w e r e t w o m a j or i t i e s a nd t ha t t he gove r nm e nt ha d t o be f or m e d f r om bot h pa r t i e s ( B ur ki 1980 37 38 ) B hut t o t hr e a t e ne d t ha t hi s pa r t y w oul d not a t t e nd t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y unl e s s hi s de m a nds f or a pow e r s ha r i ng a gr e e m e nt w e r e m e t m a ki ng t he dr a f t i ng of a ne w c ons t i t ut i on i m pos s i bl e P r e s s ur e f r om P r e s i de nt K ha n t o r e a c h a n a gr e e m e nt a nd m ont hs of ne got i a t i ons f a i l e d t o a c hi e ve a ny r e s ul t s a nd t he P r e s i de nt di s s ol ve d t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y a nd pos t pone d f ur t he r e l e c t i ons i nde f i ni t e l y. T he publ i c ba c kl a s h i n E a s t

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133 P a ki s t a n w a s i m m e di a t e a nd s e ve r e S pur r e d on b y t he A w a m i L e a gue a w i de s pr e a d r e vol t e r upt e d a c r os s t he e a s t w i ng ( W i l ki ns on 200 0, 208 09 ) O n M a r c h 25, a br ut a l m i l i t a r y c r a c kdow n w a s i ni t i a t e d i n E a s t P a ki s t a n, w hi l e pr e s s c e ns or s hi p w a s r e i ns t a t e d i n t he w e s t t o c ove r up t he c r i s i s T he s i t ua t i on i n E a s t P a ki s t a n s oon de vol ve d i nt o a f ul l bl ow n c i vi l w a r a nd m i l i t a r y a nd pa r a m i l i t a r y uni t s f r om t he e a s t j oi ne d t he A w a m i L e a gue i n oppos i ng t he c r a c kdow n. O ve r t he f ol l o w i ng ni ne m ont hs t he I ndi a n a r m y s uppl i e d a nd t r a i ne d t he E a s t P a ki s t a ni r e be l s a nd f i na l l y i nva de d t he e a s t on D e c e m be r 3 rd e ndi ng t he w a r a nd c r e a t i ng t he ne w na t i on of B a ngl a de s h ( B a xt e r 1995, 88 89 ) W he n t he P a ki s t a ni popul a c e w hi c h ha d be e n ke pt l a r ge l y i n t he da r k a bout t he c i vi l w a r r e a c t e d vi ol e nt l y a ga i ns t t he di s gr a c e d m i l i t a r y f ol l ow i ng t he a nnounc e m e nt of t he l os s K ha n a nd t he m i l i t a r y s t e ppe d dow n, a nd B hut t o w a s a ppoi nt e d pr e s i de nt of t he s e ve r e l y r e duc e d C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y ( H a qqa ni 2006, 22 1 22) B e t w e e n 1971 a nd 1973 t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y, or i g i na l l y e l e c t e d i n 1970, w or ke d t o c r e a t e P a ki s t a n s t hi r d na t i ve c ons t i t ut i o na l s ys t e m T he 1973 c ons t i t ut i on r e t ur ne d P a ki s t a n t o a pa r l i a m e nt a r y s ys t e m e s t a bl i s hi ng a bi c a m e r a l l e gi s l a t ur e t ha t w a s c om pos e d of a 200 m e m be r l ow e r hous e a nd a 66 m e m be r uppe r hous e T he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y ( l ow e r hous e ) w a s di r e c t l y e l e c t e d by vo t e r s i n e a c h pr ovi nc e w hi l e t he S e na t e c ons i s t e d of 14 m e m be r s f r om e a c h p r ovi nc e w ho w e r e a ppoi n t e d by t he P r ovi nc i a l A s s e m bl i e s ( M a hm ood 2000, 69 70) T he c ons t i t u t i on a l s o c r e a t e d a f e de r a l gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e t ha t gr a nt e d e a c h of P a ki s t a n s f our pr ovi nc e s a hi gh de gr e e of pol i t i c a l a ut onom y, a s w e l l a s f r e e dom ove r c ul t ur a l e duc a t i on a nd l a w s U nde r B hut t o s gui da nc e how e ve r t he 1973 c ons t i t ut i on pr ovi de d e xt r e m e pow e r s t o t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r a nd e s t a bl i s he d va r i ous ba r r i e r s t o r e m ovi ng t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r f r om of f i c e T he

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134 c ons t i t ut i on a l s o gr a nt e d t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt br oa d e m e r ge nc y pow e r s w i t h poor l y de f i ne d pa r a m e t e r s f or e na c t i ng t he m ( B ur ki 1980, 11314 ) D e s pi t e t he a dopt i on of t he 1973 c ons t i t ut i on, t he r ul i ng P P P gove r nm e nt unde r P r i m e M i ni s t e r B hut t o de l a ye d e l e c t i ons unt i l 1977. B hut t o s e t a bout pur g i ng t he m i l i t a r y a nd bur e a uc r a c y of f or m e r l oya l i s t s t o t he m i l i t a r y r e gi m e bu t of t e n r e pl a c e d t he m w i t h unde r qua l i f i e d i ndi vi dua l s w ho s uppor t e d t he P P P B hut t o s pol i t i c a l a ppoi nt m e nt of o f f i c e r s a nd c i vi l s e r va nt s c a us e d bot h or ga ni z a t i ons t o f e e l t hr e a t e ne d, unde r m i ni ng t he P P P s s uppor t by t he s t a t e a ppa r a t us ( B e c ke r 1995, 217 18 ) A bus e s of t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt s e m e r ge nc y pow e r s oc c ur r e d f r e que nt l y dur i ng B hut t o s a dm i ni s t r a t i on, m os t p r om i ne nt l y i n t he de c l a r a t i o n of e m e r ge nc y r ul e i n B a l uc hi s t a n a nd t he N or t h W e s t F r on t i e r P r ovi nc e i n 1973 t ha t di s s ol ve d de m oc r a t i c a l l y e l e c t e d oppos i t i on gove r nm e nt s ( B a xt e r 1995 60 ) P ol i t i c a l oppos i t i on w a s of t e n de a l t w i t h vi ol e nt l y by m i l i t i a s l oya l t o t he P P P a nd B hut t o f r e que nt l y di s m i s s e d m e m be r s of P a r l i a m e nt on f a l s e c ha r ge s of c or r upt i on. A popu l a r s e pa r a t i s t m ove m e nt e m e r ge d dur i ng t hi s pe r i od i n B a l uc hi s t a n f ol l ow i ng a l a nd r e f or m po l i c y t ha t gr a nt e d l a nd i n t he pr ovi nc e t o P un j a bi s e t t l e r s a nd t he 1973 de c l a r a t i on of e m e r ge nc y r ul e B hut t o a ut hor i z e d t he m i l i t a r y t o i nt e r ve n e i n B a l uc hi s t a n, a nd a vi ol e nt w a r e r upt e d be t w e e n t he P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y a nd B a l uc h gue r i l l a s ( B ur ki 198 0, 137 38 ) B hut t o a t t e m pt e d t o l i m i t pot e nt i a l ba c kl a s h f r om t he c onf l i c t by c a s t i ng t he B a l uc h a s vi c i ous ba r ba r i a ns a nd pl a yi ng up f e a r s o f t e r r i t or i a l di s i nt e gr a t i on s t i l l f r e s h on t he m i nds o f t he P a ki s t a ni publ i c D ue t o B hut t o s f r a m i ng of t he c onf l i c t t h e m i l i t a r y r e e s t a bl i s he d i t s publ i c s uppor t onc e a ga i n be c a m e a s our c e of na t i ona l pr i de t o t he popu l a c e of P a ki s t a n, a nd t he pol i t i c a l i m po r t a nc e of t he a r m e d f or c e s i nc r e a s e d ( V e r ka a i k 2004, 89)

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135 I n J a nua r y of 1977, B hut t o f i na l l y s c he dul e d e l e c t i ons f or t he f ol l ow i ng M a r c h. E ve r y m a j o r oppos i t i on pa r t y uni t e d t o f or m t he P a ki s t a n N a t i ona l A l l i a nc e ( P N A ) a nd c ont e s t e d ne a r l y e ve r y na t i on a l a nd pr o vi nc i a l a s s e m bl y s e a t a c r os s P a ki s t a n. H i gh s uppor t a m ong t he e l e c t or a t e f o r t he P N A qu i c kl y be c a m e a ppa r e nt a nd a s B hut t o c a m pa i gne d f ur i ous l y, p r e pa r a t i ons w e r e m a de t o a l t e r t he r e s ul t s by t he P P P c ont r o l l e d e l e c t or a l c om m i s s i on ( B e c ke r 199 5, 224) T he e l e c t i on r e s ul t s w e r e he a vi l y s ke w e d t ow a r ds t he P P P w i t h t he pa r t y w i nni ng 155 N a t i o na l A s s e m bl y s e a t s c om pa r e d t o onl y 36 f or t he P N A A m i d w i de s pr e a d publ i c pr ot e s t s t he P N A a c c us e d t he P P P o f vot e r i ggi ng a nd de m a nde d ne w e l e c t i ons B hut t o r e f us e d a nd f or e s t a l l e d t he s e a t i ng of P a r l i a m e nt t hr ough t he e m e r ge nc y pow e r s gr a nt e d t o t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r i n t he c ons t i t ut i on. P r ot e s t s t ur ne d t o r i o t s f ol l ow i ng t hi s de c i s i on a nd m ont hs of f r ui t l e s s ne got i a t i ons be t w e e n t he P P P a nd P N A p r ol onge d P a ki s t a n s s t a t e of uphe a va l O n J ul y 5 t h 1977, C om m a nde r a nd C hi e f of t he A r m e d F or c e s G e ne r a l Z i a a l H a q o r de r e d t he m i l i t a r y t o t a ke a l l pol i t i c a l l e a de r s i nt o c us t ody a n d a s s um e c ont r ol of t he gove r nm e nt ( M a hm ood 2000, 166 ) 1977 1988: T h e S e c on d M ar t i al L aw R e gi m e a n d I t s D e m oc r at i c O p p on e n t s F ol l ow i ng t he a r r e s t of t he P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c a l l e a de r s hi p, Z i a de c l a r e d m a r t i a l l a w pr om i s i ng t o r e s t or e or de r a nd hol d ne w e l e c t i ons i n 90 da ys T he s e pr om i s e s w e r e not t o be f ul f i l l e d, a nd Z i a c ont i nue d t o pus h ba c k t he da t e f or e l e c t i ons c i t i ng t he ne e d t o m a i nt a i n s t a bi l i t y. F ol l ow i ng t he e nd of P r e s i de nt F a z a l E l a hi C ha udur y s t e r m i n 1978 Z i a be c a m e t he P r e s i de nt of P a ki s t a n a nd be ga n a n e xt e ns i ve ove r ha ul of t he l a w s a nd

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136 gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e e s t a b l i s he d by t he 1973 c ons t i t ut i on. Z i a w a s qui c k t o a dor n hi s a dm i ni s t r a t i on w i t h t he t r a ppi ngs o f a de m oc r a t i c p r oc e s s e s t a bl i s hi ng a 300 m e m be r C ounc i l of A dvi s or s c ons i s t i ng of r e pr e s e nt a t i ve s f r om r e l i gi ous or de r s e t hni c gr oups a nd e c onom i c s e c t or s T he C ounc i l w a s a ppoi nt e d by t he P r e s i de nt a nd w i e l de d no pow e r of l e gi s l a t i on, s e r vi ng i ns t e a d t o l i m i t de m a nds f or e l e c t i ons ( H a qqa ni 2006, 206 07 ) D ur i ng t he s t a t e of m a r t i a l l a w t ha t l a s t e d f r o m 1977 t o 1985, Z i a s uppr e s s e d pol i t i c a l a c t i vi t y o f a ny k i nd a nd i ns t i t ut e d c om pl e t e m e di a c e ns or s hi p. J our na l i s t s a nd pr ot e s t or s a s w e l l a s m e m be r s o f va r i ous c i vi c or g a ni z a t i ons w e r e a r r e s t e d t hr oughou t P a ki s t a n, a nd m a ny m e m be r s of t he P P P i nc l udi ng Z ul f i qa r A l i B hut t o w e r e c onvi c t e d of a c t s of pol i t i c a l vi o l e nc e a nd e xe c ut e d ( B ur ki e t a l 1991, 54 55 ) Z i a a c ons e r va t i ve M us l i m m a de t he I s l a m i z a t i on of t he P a ki s t a ni s t a t e a hi gh pr i or i t y f or hi s r e gi m e Z i a c r e a t e d s e pa r a t e c our t s ba s e d on S ha r i a l a w a nd pr ot e c t e d t he r ul i ngs of t he s e c our t s f r om r e vi e w b y P a ki s t a n s s e c ul a r c our t s ( V e r ka a i k 2004, 86 87 ) P r e s i de nt Z i a a l s o pa s s e d l a w s pr ohi bi t i ng a c t i vi t i e s de e m e d r e pugna nt t o or t hodox I s l a m s uc h a s t he c ons um pt i on of a l c ohol f o r ni c a t i on, a dul t e r y, a nd be a r i ng f a l s e w i t ne s s w hi l e c r e a t i ng a pe na l c ode f or t he s e c r i m e s ba s e d on I s l a m i c t he o r i e s of puni s hm e nt T he Z i a a dm i ni s t r a t i on a l s o a t t e m pt e d t o l i m i t t he pow e r s of c ons t i t ut i ona l r e vi e w he l d by t he s e c ul a r j udi c i a r y I n t he P r ov i s i ona l C ons t i t ut i ona l O r de r of 1980 Z i a de c l a r e d t ha t a l l a c t i ons unde r t a ke n by t he m i l i t a r y a nd gove r nm e nt dur i ng m a r t i a l l a w c oul d not be t r i e d i n t he c our t s S e ve r a l H i gh C our t s r ul e d t he o r de r unc ons t i t ut i ona l pr om pt i ng Z i a t o de c l a r e t he j ud i c i a r y a s s ubs e r vi e nt t o t he e xe c ut i ve a nd r e qui r i ng a l l j udge s t o s i gn oa t hs de c l a r i ng t he i r obe di e nc e t o t h e P r e s i de nt i n t he P r ovi s i ona l

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137 C ons t i t ut i ona l O r de r of 1981. M a ny o f P a ki s t a n s m os t e xpe r i e nc e d j udge s r e s i gne d ove r t he O r de r ( B e c ke r 1995, 228 29 ) D e s pi t e t he Z i a a l H a q r e gi m e s s uppr e s s i on of pol i t i c a l a c t i v i t y, f r e e s pe e c h, a nd t he m e di a oppos i t i on t o t he m i l i t a r y gove r n m e nt c ont i nue d. L a bor uni ons s t ude nt a s s oc i a t i on s a nd w om e n s or ga ni z a t i ons he l d i nt e r m i t t e nt pr ot e s t s i n P a ki s t a n s m a j or ur ba n a r e a s A l t hough pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s w e r e ou t l a w e d by Z i a m e m be r s o f t he f or m e r P N A f or m e d t he M ove m e nt t o R e s t or e D e m oc r a c y w hi c h s e r ve d a s a f r e que nt s our c e of pr ot e s t a nd c r i t i que t hr oughout t he m a r t i a l l a w pe r i od. A l t hough Z i a de a l t w i t h t he s e m ove m e nt s l a r ge l y t hr ough m i l i t a r y r e pr e s s i on a nd j a i l i ng oppos i t i on l e a de r s m ount i ng pr e s s ur e di d a c hi e ve gr a dua l pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on be gi nni ng w i t h t he r e i ns t i t ut i ng of e l e c t i ons f or l oc a l gove r nm e nt s a nd c ul m i na t i ng i n t he s c he dul i ng of na t i ona l e l e c t i ons i n 1985 ( B ur ki 1991, 106 107 ) P ol i t i c a l pa r t i e s w e r e s t i l l out l a w e d du r i ng t he e l e c t i on, s e ve r e l y l i m i t i ng t he c a pa c i t y of oppos i t i on c a ndi d a t e s t o c ont e s t P r ovi nc i a l a nd N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y s e a t s T he P a r l i a m e nt t ha t r e c onve ne d i n 1985 qui c kl y pa s s e d t he R e s t or a t i on of t he 1973 C ons t i t ut i on A c t a l t hough t he a m e nd m e nt s pl a c e d on t he c ons t i t ut i on by Z i a ha d s ubs t a nt i a l l y a l t e r e d t he doc um e nt U nde r t he r e vi s e d c ons t i t ut i on, t he P r e s i de nt w a s t he dom i na nt f o r c e i n t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt w i e l di ng s ubs t a nt i a l pow e r ove r t he l e gi s l a t i ve pr oc e s s a nd pos s e s s i ng t h e a bi l i t y t o di s m i s s t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r a nd P a r l i a m e nt a t w i l l ( B a xt e r 1995, 76 77 ) W i t h t he a dopt i on of t he a m e nde d 1973 c ons t i t ue n t Z i a e nde d m a r t i a l l a w a nd a l l ow e d t he f or m a t i on of pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s P a r l i a m e nt unde r P r i m e M i ni s t e r M oha m m a d K ha n J une j o a t t e m pt e d t o r e f or m t he c ons t i t ut i on a nd pol i t i c a l s ys t e m c r e a t e d by Z i a by pr opos i ng l i m i t s on pr e s i de nt i a l pow e r s a nd r e ve r s i ng s om e of t he I s l a m i z a t i on p r ogr a m s

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138 T he P r e s i de nt r e s ponde d by a br upt l y di s s ol vi ng P a r l i a m e nt i n M a y of 1988 A m i d pr e s s ur e s f r om a uni f i e d oppos i t i on a s w e l l a s a l m os t uni ve r s a l publ i c c onde m na t i on o f t he de c i s i on, Z i a r e l e nt e d a nd s c he dul e d ne w e l e c t i ons f or N ove m be r H e pr om i s e d t o r e s pe c t t he e l e c t or a l s ys t e m de ve l ope d i n t he 1973 C ons t i t ut i on, but r e i ns t a t e d t he ba n on pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s ( M a hm ood 2000 112 13 ) T he de a t h of P r e s i de nt Z i a a l H a q i n A ugus t of 1988 i n a n une xpl a i ne d p l a ne c r a s h e nde d P a ki s t a n s s e c ond m a r t i a l l a w r e gi m e F ol l ow i ng t he c r a s h, t he P a ki s t a ni S upr e m e C our t r e s c i nde d t he ba n on pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a nd f ol l ow i ng a c om pe t i t i ve a nd f a i r e l e c t i on i n N ove m be r t he P P P unde r t he l e a de r s hi p of B hut t o s da ught e r B e na z i r e s t a bl i s he d a pl ur a l i t y i n t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y. 1988 1999: A u t h or i t ar i an L e gac i e s an d U n s t ab l e D e m oc r ac y B e na z i r B hut t o be c a m e t he f i r s t w om a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r e l e c t e d i n a M us l i m na t i on. U nde r he r l e a de r s hi p t he P P P ha d w on 92 s e a t s i n t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y, m or e t ha n a ny ot he r pa r t y. T he I s l a m i J a hoor i I t t e ha d ( I J I ) a c oa l i t i on f o r m e d out of t he P a ki s t a ni M us l i m L e a gue ( P M L ) e l e m e nt s o f t he f or m e r r e gi m e a nd r e l i gi ous pa r t i e s be c a m e t he m a i n oppos i t i on pa r t y, w i nni ng 56 s e a t s i n t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y. T he I J I w on a m a j or i t y of s e a t s i n t he P unj a bi P r ovi nc i a l C ounc i l how e ve r a nd w a s a bl e t o s e c ur e a m a j or i t y i n t he S e na t e ( E l e c t i ons C om m i s s i on of P a ki s t a n 1988) T he ne xt de c a de of P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c s w oul d be c ha r a c t e r i z e d by c onf l i c t be t w e e n t he s e t w o pa r t i e s R a t he r t ha n c r e a t i ng a not he r c ons t i t ue nt a s s e m bl y, P a ki s t a n s t hi r d de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e r e t a i ne d t he doc um e nt a nd a t t e m pt e d t o r e f or m t he c ons t i t ut i on t hr ough a s e r i e s of a m e ndm e nt s ( B e c ke r 1995, 246 ) B hut t o s a dm i ni s t r a t i on r e t ur ne d t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r t o

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139 s upr e m a c y i n t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt a l t hough G h ul a m I s ha q K ha n, t he P r e s i de nt a ppoi nt e d dur i ng t he Z i a r e gi m e w a s a bl e t o r e t a i n s ubs t a nt i a l r e s e r ve pow e r s w i t h s uppor t f r om t he I J I ( H a qqa ni 2006, 211 12) B hut t o a l s o a t t e m pt e d t o r e e s t a bl i s h c i vi l i a n c ont r ol o f t he m i l i t a r y by r e pe a l i ng t he 8 t h A m e ndm e nt w hi c h ha d r e m ove d a l l gove r nm e nt c ont r ol a nd ove r s i ght ov e r t he de c i s i o ns a nd i nt e r na l p r oc e dur e s of t he a r m e d f or c e s ( K ukr e j 2004 187 88 ) I n 1990 P r e s i de nt K ha n c ha r ge d B hut t o w i t h c or r upt i on a l l ow i ng hi m t o di s s ol ve t he r ul i ng gove r nm e nt un de r t he P r e s i de nt i a l pow e r s e s t a bl i s he d by Z i a s a m e ndm e nt s ( D i a m o nd 2000, 103 04 ) N e w e l e c t i ons w e r e he l d i n O c t obe r r e s ul t i ng i n a l a nds l i de I J I vi c t o r y. T he P M L e d c oa l i t i on i nc r e a s e d i t s s e a t s ha r e by 50 w hi l e t he P P P w a s r e duc e d t o 44 s e a t s ( E l e c t or a l C om m i s s i on of P a ki s t a n 1990 ) T he I J I vi c t or y ga ve t he c oa l i t i on c ont r ol of t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y a nd S e na t e w hi c h qui c kl y e l e c t e d N a w a z S ha r i f of t he P M L a s P r i m e M i ni s t e r S ha r i f a w e a l t hy bus i ne s s m a n f r om P unj a b, ha d be e n one of Z i a a l H a q s m os t l oya l s uppor t e r s s e r vi ng a s F i na nc e M i ni s t e r a nd C hi e f M i n i s t e r o f P unj a b dur i ng t he m i l i t a r y r e gi m e ( C ha udhr y e t a l 2009 348 ) S ha r i f r a pi dl y i ns t i t ut e d p ol i c i e s a i m e d a t l i be r a l i z i ng t he P a ki s t a ni e c onom y s e l l i n g publ i c i ndus t r i e s a nd r e l a xi ng r e s t r i c t i ons on f o r e i gn i nve s t m e nt L i ke B hut t o, S ha r i f a l s o a t t e m pt e d t o a m e nd t he c ons t i t ut i on t o s t r e ngt he n t he pos i t i on of P r i m e M i ni s t e r a nd l i m i t pr e s i de nt i a l pow e r T he I J I c oa l i t i on i n P a r l i a m e nt be ga n t o s t r a i n a s c ons e r va t i ve r e l i gi ous pa r t i e s di s a ppr ove d of t he pe r c e i ve d w e s t e r ni z a t i on t ha t a c c om pa ni e d S h a r i f s e c onom i c de ve l opm e nt pol i c i e s w hi l e m e m be r s o f t he Z i a r e gi m e f a vor e d a s t r ong P r e s i de nt i a l s ys t e m S ha r i f s a t t e m pt s t o r e f or m t he c ons t i t ut i o n a nd r e pe a l Z i a s a m e ndm e nt s r e qui r e d t he s uppor t of B hut t o a nd t he P P P t o r e a c h a t w o t hi r ds m a j or i t y B hut t o,

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140 how e ve r r e f us e d t o c oope r a t e a nd i ns t e a d a t t e m pt e d t o c a pi t a l i z e on t he di vi de be t w e e n S ha r i f a nd t he P r e s i de nt ( M a hm ood 2000, 219 20 ) F ol l ow i ng S ha r i f s a t t e m pt t o r e i ns t a t e gove r nm e nt a l c ont r ol of t he m i l i t a r y, P r e s i de nt K ha n c ha r ge d t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r w i t h c or r upt i on a nd di s s ol ve d t he gove r n m e nt i n 1 993. K ha n s a c t w a s i m m e di a t e l y ove r t ur ne d i n a l a ndm a r k de c i s i on by t he S upr e m e C our t t ha t de m ons t r a t e d t he gr ow i ng i nde pe nde nc e of t he j udi c i a r y D e s pi t e t he r ul i ng, K ha n a nd S ha r i f a gr e e d t o j oi nt l y s t e p dow n f r om t he i r of f i c e s a nd hol d ne w e l e c t i ons i n O c t obe r ( B a xt e r 1995 93 95 ) T he c onf l i c t be t w e e n S ha r i f a nd t he m i l i t a r y e s t a bl i s hm e nt c a us e d t he I J I t o di s i nt e gr a t e a nd a P P P l e d c oa l i t i on w a s a bl e t o c a pt ur e 121 N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y s e a t s c om pa r e d w i t h 73 f or t he P M L ( K ukr e j a 2003, 244 45 ) T he P P P c a ndi da t e f o r P r e s i de nt w a s a l s o e l e c t e d, a nd dur i ng he r s e c ond t e r m B hut t o m a de no a t t e m pt s t o c ha l l e nge t he pow e r of t he e xe c ut i ve be l i e vi ng he r s e l f t o be e f f e c t i ve l y i n c ont r ol of t he gove r n m e nt B hut t o a l s o m a de no a t t e m pt s t o a l t e r t he r ol e of t h e m i l i t a r y i n P a ki s t a n s pol i t i c a l pr oc e s s I ns t e a d s he a t t e m pt e d t o s e c ur e t he s uppor t of t he m i l i t a r y t h r ough i nc r e a s e s i n de f e ns e s pe ndi ng a nd s uppor t i ng a dm i ni s t r a t i ve i n de pe nde nc e f or t he a r m e d f or c e s ( G a ngul y 2000, 137 ) T he P M L a nd va r i ous o r ga ni z a t i ons s uppor t e d by t he pa r t y or ga ni z e d a nd c a r r i e d ou t a nt i B hut t o pr ot e s t s a nd r i ot s i n t he P unj a b a nd S i ndh f ol l ow i ng a s e ve r e e c onom i c dow nt u r n i n 1995 ( H a qqa ni 2006, 228 ) E m e r ge nc y e c onom i c pr ogr a m s de s i gne d by t he P P P t o a ddr e s s t he f i na nc i a l c r i s i s w e r e r e pe a t e dl y obs t r uc t e d by t he bu r e a uc r a c y, m i l i t a r y, a nd l a nde d e l i t e s w ho a t t e m pt e d t o d i s t a nc e t he m s e l ve s f r om B hut t o by r e f us i ng t o s uppor t o r i m pl e m e nt he r pol i c i e s ( K ukr e j a 2003 250 51 ) I n N ove m be r of 1996 t he P r e s i de nt di s m i s s e d B hut t o a nd di s s ol ve d t he gove r nm e nt

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141 E l e c t i ons i n F e br ua r y of 1997 r e t ur ne d t he P M L a nd N a w a z S ha r i f t o pow e r w i t h 137 A s s e m bl y s e a t s T he P P P s a w t he i r s ha r e r e duc e d t o 18 p r e ve nt i ng t he pa r t y f r om i n f l u e nc i ng t he l e gi s l a t i ve pr oc e s s t o a ny m e a ni ngf ul de gr e e ( C ha udhr y e t a l 2009 ) M a ki ng us e of hi s pa r t y s t w o t hi r ds m a j or i t y S ha r i f m ove d qui c kl y t o r e pe a l t he 8 t h a m e ndm e nt H e t he n a t t e m pt e d t he pa s s t he 13 t h A m e ndm e nt w hi c h e s t a bl i s he s l e gi s l a t i ve i nde pe nde nc e f r om t he e xe c ut i ve b r a nc h a s w e l l a s t he s upr e m a c y of t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r t o t he P r e s i de nt ( A hm e d a nd S t e pha n 201 0, 493 94 ) T he A m e ndm e nt a l s o gr a nt s t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r a hi gh de gr e e o f c ont r ol ove r t he l e gi s l a t i ve pr oc e s s pr ot e c t i ons f r om i m pe a c hm e nt a nd e m e r ge nc y po w e r s s i m i l a r t o t hos e f or m e r l y he l d by t he P r e s i de nt of P a ki s t a n. T he a m e ndm e nt w a s r ul e d unc ons t i t ut i ona l by t he S upr e m e C our t be gi nni ng a m ont h l ong l e ga l de a dl oc k be t w e e n t he J udi c i a r y a nd P a r l i a m e nt T he gove r nm e nt s hut dow n w a s f i na l l y e nde d w he n P M L l oya l i s t s s t or m e d t he S upr e m e C our t a nd r e m ove d t he C hi e f J us t i c e f r om of f i c e ( M a hm ood 2000, 187 88 ) W i t h t he r e m ova l of t he j udi c i a r y a nd a c qui e s c e nc e of t he P r e s i de nt S ha r i f e xe r c i s e d a l m os t un r i va l e d c ont r ol of t he gove r n m e nt T he P M L s dom i na nc e i n P a r l i a m e nt a l s o pr ovi de d l i m i t e d ve nue f or oppos i t i on by ot he r pa r t i e s a l t hough t he P P P di d i ni t i a t e i nt e r m i t t e nt pr ot e s t s S ha r i f s de m oc r a t i c di c t a t or s hi p w a s put t o a n e nd i n 1999, w he n he a t t e m pt e d t o r e e s t a bl i s h c ont r ol of t he m i l i t a r y by r e m ovi ng i t s C om m a nde r i n C hi e f a nd r e pl a c i ng hi m w i t h a l ow r a nki ng P M L l oya l i s t T he C om m a nde r i n C hi e f G e ne r a l P e r ve z M us ha r r a f a nd hi s s e ni or G e ne r a l s di s s ol ve d t he gove r nm e nt a nd a r r e s t e d S ha r i f f ol l ow i ng t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r s a t t e m pt e d e xi l e o f M us ha r r a f i n O c t obe r o f 1999 ( G a ngul y 2000, 3 4)

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142 1999 2008: A M i l i t ar y C o n t r ol l e d D e m oc r at i c S ys t e m A f t e r a s s um i ng pow e r M us ha r r a f s us pe nde d t he c ons t i t ut i on a nd de c l a r e d e m e r ge nc y r ul e c a r e f ul l y a voi di ng t he t e r m m a r t i a l l a w A s e r i e s of s ui t s w e r e f i l e d a ga i ns t t he m i l i t a r y by t he P M L a nd ot he r pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s c ha r gi ng M us ha r r a f w i t h vi ol a t i on of t he C ons t i t ut i on o f P a ki s t a n. M us ha r r a f s O a t h of J udge s O r de r i n J a nua r y 2000 r e qui r e d a l l j udge s t o s i gn a ne w oa t h of l oya l t y t o t he m i l i t a r y r e gi m e a nd a gr e e t o uphol d i t s de c i s i ons D e s pi t e t he r e s i gna t i on of m a ny j udge s t he o r de r e s t a bl i s he d M us ha r r a f s c ont r ol of t he P a ki s t a ni l e ga l s ys t e m ( A hm e d a nd S t e pha n 2010 498 99 ) M us ha r r a f c ont i nue d t he s ys t e m of r ul e e s t a bl i s he d by K h a n a nd Z i a pe r s ona l l y c ont r ol l i ng t he di r e c t i on o f t he gove r nm e nt w hi l e r e l yi ng on t he c i v i l s e r vi c e t o a dm i ni s t e r t he na t i on. T he m a j o r pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a ga i n be ga n t o f or m un i f i e d p r ot e s t m ove m e nt s w i t h B hut t o a nd S ha r i f j oi ni ng t o e s t a bl i s h t he M ove m e nt t o R e s t or e D e m oc r a c y i n S e pt e m be r o f 2000 I n r e s pons e M us ha r r a f e xi l e d t he t op l e a de r s hi p o f t he P P P a nd P M L hopi ng t ha t t he r e s ul t i ng di s a r r a y w i t hi n t he pa r t i e s w oul d a l l ow hi m t i m e t o c ons ol i da t e hi s r ul e P ubl i c a nd i nt e r na t i on a l pr e s s ur e c on t i nue d t o m oun t how e ve r a nd i n 2001 M us ha r r a f i m pl e m e nt e d t he L e ga l F r a m e w or k O r de r w hi c h s c he dul e d ge ne r a l e l e c t i ons f or 2002 a nd r e i ns t a t e d t he 1973 c ons t i t ut i on ( H a qqa ni 2006 223 4) T he 2002 e l e c t i ons w e r e c ont e s t e d by a l l t he m a j o r oppos i t i on p a r t i e s but t he r e m ova l of t he i r l e a de r s hi p w e a ke ne d t he m a nd t h e pr o M us ha r r a f P M L ( Q ) w on a pl ur a l i t y of t he vot e ga i ni ng 126 s e a t s c om pa r e d t o 81 f o r t he i r ne a r e s t r i va l t he P P P ( E l e c t i on C om m i s s i on of P a ki s t a n 2002) A f t e r f o r m i ng a c oa l i t i on w i t h s e ve r a l r e gi ona l

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143 pa r t i e s M us ha r r a f s s uppor t e r s i n t he l e gi s l a t ur e s uc c e s s f ul l y pa s s e d t he 17 t h a m e ndm e nt t o t he P a ki s t a ni C ons t i t ut i on w hi c h r e t r oa c t i ve l y l e gi t i m i z e d M us ha r r a f s c oup w hi l e gr a nt i ng t he P r e s i de nt t he a bi l i t y t o di s s ol ve t he r ul i ng gove r nm e nt i n P a r l i a m e nt a nd e m e r ge nc y pow e r s i n t he e ve nt of s oc i a l i ns t a bi l i t y or a c ons t i t ut i ona l c r i s i s ( B e hur i a 2009, 12 13 ) B e t w e e n 2002 a nd 2007, t he de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s of gove r na nc e e s t a bl i s he d by t he c ons t i t ut i on w e r e ba s i c a l l y r e s p e c t e d by a l l pa r t i e s a nd gr oups a l t hough P r e s i de nt M us ha r r a f s i n f l ue nc e on t he l e gi s l a t ur e w a s c l e a r C i vi l r i gh t s a nd l i be r t i e s w e r e r e t ur ne d a nd m e di a r e s t r i c t i ons w e r e r e l a xe d. M us ha r a f f a l s o i nc r e a s e d t he s e a t s r e s e r ve d f or m i nor i t y gr oups a nd w om e n i n t he P r ovi n c i a l A s s e m bl i e s a nd P a r l i a m e nt t r i pl i ng t he s e a t s r e s e r ve d f or w om e n i n t he N a t i ona l A s s e m bl y f r om 20 t o 60 i n 2004 ( C ha udhr y e t a l 2009, 342 43 ) D e s pi t e t he r e l a t i ve pol i t i c a l s t a bi l i t y a nd l e ve l of de m oc r a t i c pr oc e s s publ i c di s a ppr ova l of P r e s i de nt M us ha r r a f gr e w s l ow l y f o l l ow i ng i nc i de nt s of ove r s t e ppi ng P r e s i de nt i a l a ut hor i t y i n t he l e gi s l a t i ve pr oc e s s a nd M us ha r r a f s r e f us a l t o r e l i nqui s h hi s dua l r ol e a s P r e s i de nt a nd C om m a nde r i n C hi e f of t he m i l i t a r y M us ha r r a f s publ i c s uppor t w a s c om pl e t e l y unde r m i ne d by t he P r e s i de nt s r e m ova l o f t he C hi e f J us t i c e of t he S upr e m e C our t i n M a r c h of 2007 T he C hi e f J us t i c e w ho ha d r e pe a t e dl y b l oc ke d M us ha r r a f s uppor t e d l e gi s l a t i on, w a s r e pl a c e d by a l ow l e ve l j udge l oya l t o t he P M L ( Q ) T he m ove i ns pi r e d a m a s s i ve s e r i e s of pr ot e s t s a nd r i ot s by P a ki s t a ni l a w ye r s w ho or ga ni z e d t o boyc ot t c our t p r oc e dur e s a c r os s t he n a t i on. T he m a s s i ve de m ons t r a t i ons by t he l a w ye r s m ove m e nt a nd va r i ous l e ga l a s s oc i a t i ons s hut dow n t he j udi c i a l pr oc e s s i n P a ki s t a n. T he pub l i c a nge r ove r M us ha r r a f s t a m p e r i ng w i t h t he j udi c i a l s ys t e m e m bol de ne d t he c our t s t o r ul e a ga i ns t t he P r e s i de nt c ha r gi ng hi m w i t h c or r up t i on,

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144 c ont e m pt of c our t a nd unc ons t i t ut i ona l be ha vi or ( A hm e d a nd S t e pha n 2010 505 06 ) A m i d publ i c p r ot e s t s a nd a r e j uve na t e d oppos i t i on f ol l ow i ng t he r e t ur n of B hut t o a nd S ha r i f f r om e xi l e M us ha r r a f di s s ol ve d P a r l i a m e nt a nd de c l a r e d e m e r ge nc y r ul e i n S e pt e m be r 2007. D e s pi t e t he s us pe ns i on of c i vi l r i ght s a nd f r e e dom s of a s s oc i a t i on a nd s pe e c h, a s w e l l a s t he s uppr e s s i on of i nde pe nde nt m e di a out l e t s t he a nt i M us ha r r a f m ove m e nt c ont i nue d t o ga i n m om e nt um M us ha r r a f f i na l l y r e l e nt e d t o t he oppos i t i on s c a l l s f or e l e c t i ons i n N ove m be r 2007 a nd e m e r ge n c y r ul e w a s e nde d l e a di ng up t o t he ge ne r a l e l e c t i ons i n J a nua r y ( B u hur i a e t a l 2009, 3 42 43) 2008 T h e P r e s e n t : P r om i s i n g O u t l ook s an d L i n ge r i n g T h r e at s T he c a m pa i gn f o r t he 2008 e l e c t i ons w a s m a r r e d b y t he a s s a s s i na t i on of B e na z i r B hut t o by a s ui c i de bom be r i n D e c e m be r F ol l ow i ng r i ot s a nd t hr e a t s of a boyc ot t by t he P P P t he e l e c t i ons w e r e pos t pone d u nt i l S e pt e m be r I n a r e m a r ka bl e a nd unl i ke l y di s pl a y of s ol i da r i t y, N a w a z S ha r i f a nd t h e P M L ( N ) vow e d t o boyc ot t t he e l e c t i ons i f t he P P P di d t he s a m e pr e ve nt i ng t he p a r t y f r o m c a pi t a l i z i ng on t he di s a r r a y of t he i r m a i n r i va l ( F a i r 2010 109 10 ) T he P P P now unde r t he c ha i r m a ns hi p of B hut t o s w i dow e r A s i f A l i Z a r da r i de c i de d not t o boyc ot t t he e l e c t i ons a nd ge ne r a l e l e c t i ons t o P a r l i a m e nt w e r e he l d i n F e br ua r y 2008 T he P P P w on a pl u r a l i t y o f 97 s e a t s w i t h t h e P M L ( N ) w i nni ng 71 a nd t he M us ha r r a f s uppor t e d P M L ( Q ) r e t a i ni ng on l y 42 ( E l e c t i ons C om m i s s i on of P a ki s t a n 2008) T he P r e s i de nt a c know l e dge d t he r e s ul t s a s f a i r a nd a c oa l i t i on gove r nm e nt w a s f or m e d be t w e e n t he P P P a nd P M L ( N ) Y ous a f R a z a G i l l a ni of t he P P P w a s e l e c t e d P r i m e M i ni s t e r a nd t he c oa l i t i on gove r nm e nt

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145 qui c kl y be ga n r e pe a l i ng M us ha r r a f s c ons t i t ut i ona l a m e ndm e nt s M us ha r r a f s t e ppe d dow n a s P r e s i de nt i n A ugus t o f 2008 w he n t he P a r l i a m e nt be ga n i m pe a c hm e nt he a r i ngs l e a di ng t o t he e l e c t i on o f A s i f A l i Z a r da r i a s P r e s i d e nt i n S e pt e m be r Z a r da r i s ys t e m a t i c a l l y c e de d P r e s i de nt i a l pow e r s t o t he P r i m e M i ni s t e r a nd he ha s w or ke d w i t h G i l l a ni t o r e s t or e t he pow e r a nd i nde pe nde nc e of t he j udi c i a r y. D e s pi t e s om e di s a gr e e m e nt s a nd t he de f e c t i ons of s m a l l e r pa r t i e s t he r ul i ng c oa l i t i on ha s r e m a i ne d s t a bl e ove r t he l a s t t h r e e ye a r s a nd ha s de m ons t r a t e d a c om m i t m e nt t o w or ki ng w i t hi n t he pr oc e dur a l pa r a m e t e r s de f i ne d by t he c ons t i t ut i on ( M us ht a q e t a l 2011 16 17 ) A n al ys i s : T h e F ai l u r e s of P ak i s t an i D e m oc r ac y D e s pi t e pr om i s i ng de ve l opm e nt s a nd hi gh hope s f or P a ki s t a n s f ou r t h de m oc r a t i c e r a a gl i m ps e of t he pol i t i c a l hi s t or y of t he s t a t e r e ve a l s t he f r a gi l i t y of t he ne w r e gi m e T he s t r ong c om m i t m e nt t o e s t a bl i s hi ng a pa r l i a m e nt a r y de m oc r a c y f ol l ow i ng i nde pe nde nc e a nd c ons i s t e nt de m a nds by t he P a ki s t a ni popul a c e f or r e pr e s e nt a t i ve i ns t i t ut i ons of gove r na nc e di d not pr e ve nt t he P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s f r om be i ng m a r r e d by f a i l i ngs of de m oc r a t i c e l i t e s a nd r e pe a t e dl y s t a l l e d by t he i m pos i t i o n of m i l i t a r y r ul e T he r oot s of P a ki s t a n s pr obl e m a t i c de m oc r a t i c de ve l opm e nt l i e i n t he na t ur e o f e a r l y P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y, a nd t he i ne xpe r i e nc e a nd s hor t s i ght e dne s s of t he e l i t e s w i t hi n P a ki s t a n s you ng de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons T he f or m a t i ve ye a r s o f i nde pe nde nt P a ki s t a n f i r m l y e s t a bl i s he d a pos i t i on of po l i t i c a l a ut hor i t y f o r t he m i l i t a r y t ha t ha s a l l ow e d t he a r m e d f or c e s t o r e m ove t h r e e c i vi l i a n gove r nm e nt s R e pe a t e d m i l i t a r y i nt e r ve nt i on i n t h e pol i t i c a l pr oc e s s ha s a l s o pr e ve nt e d

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146 t he de ve l opm e nt of a s t a bl e pa r t y s ys t e m a s w e l l a s pr oc e s s e s of pol i t i c a l l e a r ni ng t ha t w oul d pr oduc e di s c i pl i ne d e l i t e s I t s houl d not be ove r l ooke d, how e ve r t ha t P a ki s t a n s e e m s t o ha ve unde r gone a s l ow pr oc e s s of de m oc r a t i c de e pe ni ng ove r t he c our s e of i t s f r e que nt r e gi m e c ha nge s T he M us l i m L e a gue ha d l i t t l e e xpe r i e nc e w i t h de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m s of gove r na nc e due t o t he pa r t y s r e pe a t e dl y l ow e l e c t or a l pe r f o r m a nc e i n t he pr ovi nc i a l e l e c t i ons of t he c ol oni a l e r a F u r t he r m or e t he i nt e r na l s t r uc t ur e o f t he L e a gu e w a s c om pl e t e l y non de m oc r a t i c w i t h a l l m a j or de c i s i ons a nd a ppoi nt m e nt s be i ng m a de by t he M us l i m L e a gue P r e s i de nt ( H a qqa ni 2006 218 ) A dde d t o t he s e ha ndi c a ps w a s t he L e a gue s t e nuous hol d on pow e r f ol l ow i ng i nde pe nde nc e T he L e a gue s t r a di t i ona l ba s e of s uppor t du r i ng t he c ol oni a l e r a w a s i n M us l i m m i nor i t y a r e a s a l l o f w hi c h w e r e c e de d t o I ndi a f ol l ow i ng P a r t i t i on T he M us l i m L e a gue ha d onl y r e c e nt l y be gun t o a c hi e ve a n e l e c t or a l m a j or i t y i n t he f i ve p r ovi nc e s t ha t be c a m e P a ki s t a n, a nd t hi s w a s du e m a i nl y t o t he w e a ke ne d c a pa c i t y of t he I N C f ol l ow i ng t he ba n on t he pa r t y du r i ng W or l d W a r I I ( W r i ght 1966 581 82 ) T he L e a gue ha d f e w ne t w or ks of s uppor t a nd l i t t l e or ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y i n t he ne w l y c ons t i t ut e d s t a t e of P a ki s t a n. T he i ne xpe r i e nc e d a nd undi s c i pl i ne d pol i t i c i a ns w or ki ng w i t hi n t he unde m oc r a t i c c om m a nd s t r uc t ur e of t he L e a gue dom i na t e d C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y, e nga ge d i n a va r i e t y of unde m oc r a t i c s t r a t e gi e s t o bui l d a ba s e of pow e r T he s e s t r a t e gi e s i nc l ude d t he f o r m a t i on o f pa t r ona ge ne t w or ks a m ong t he r u r a l l a ndl or ds a nd a r i s t oc r a c y, t he m a i nt e na nc e of a uni t a r y f o r m o f gove r nm e nt de s pi t e r e gi ona l de m a nds f o r a ut onom y, t he p r e f e r e nt i a l t r e a t m e nt o f M uha j i r s i n a ppoi nt m e nt s t o gove r nm e nt a nd c i vi l s e r vi c e pos t s i nf r e que nt a nd i ndi r e c t

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147 e l e c t i ons a nd t he a r bi t r a r y d i s m i s s a l of oppos i t i on pa r t i e s i n E a s t P a ki s t a n a nd t he N or t h W e s t F r ont i e r P r ovi nc e ( J a ha n 1972 76 77 ) T he c or r upt i on a nd l a c k of c om m i t m e nt t o de m oc r a t i c nor m s t ha t c ha r a c t e r i z e d t he e a r l y pol i t i c a l s ys t e m of P a ki s t a n w a s m a de pos s i bl e due t o t he l a c k of a n e s t a bl i s he d c ons t i t ut i on t ha t w oul d ha ve p r ovi d e d i ns t i t ut i ona l c ons t r a i nt s on e l i t e be ha vi or T he p r ot r a c t e d c ons t i t ut i on dr a f t i ng pr o c e s s w a s due l a r ge l y t o t he l a c k o f pl a nni ng by t he L e a gue i n t he r un up t o i nde pe nde nc e T he L e a gue ha d pr e oc c upi e d i t s e l f w i t h t he de m a nd f o r a n i nde pe nde nt s t a t e dur i ng t he c ol oni a l e r a b ut ha d ne ve r m a de pl a ns f or w ha t t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t u r e e c o nom i c s ys t e m or na t i ona l i de ol ogy of t he pr opos e d s t a t e w oul d be M os t of t he L e a g ue s l e a de r s hi p, i nc l udi ng M uha m m a d A l i J i nna h, ha d a c t ua l l y be l i e ve d t ha t a c hi e vi ng a n i nd e pe nde nt M us l i m s t a t e w a s not pos s i bl e a nd t he de m a nd f o r P a ki s t a n ha d or i gi na l l y s e r ve d a s a t hr e a t t o gi ve t he L e a gue m or e ba r ga i ni ng pow e r a ga i ns t t he I N C O nc e i nd e pe nde nc e ha d be e n a c hi e ve d, t he L e a gue w a s f or c e d t o a ddr e s s t he s e i s s ue s but t he pol i t i c a l a nd e t hni c f a c t i ona l i s m a s w e l l a s t he di vi de be t w e e n a dvoc a t e s of a s e c ul a r a nd r e l i gi ous s t a t e c a us e d t he d r a f t i ng of a c ons t i t ut i on t o d r a g on f or ni ne y e a r s ( V e r ka a i k 2004, 26 ) R e c e nt l i t e r a t ur e on t he na t ur e of c ons t i t ut i on dr a f t i ng pr oc e s s e s on de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons r e ve a l s t ha t t he c ha r a c t e r a nd dur a t i on of t he dr a f t i ng pr oc e s s i n P a ki s t a n s e ve r e l y da m a ge d pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. T h e l a c k of t r a ns pa r e nc y a nd publ i c a c c ount a bi l i t y due t o t he i ndi r e c t a nd l i m i t e d e l e c t i ons r e m ove d a ny e xt e r na l pr e s s ur e t o c onf o r m t o e s t a bl i s he d de m oc r a t i c nor m s ( G i ns be r g e t a l 2009 221 22) T he pr ot r a c t e d na t ur e o f t he c ons t i t ut i on m a ki ng pr oc e s s i n P a ki s t a n pr ov i de d ne a r l y a de c a de f or unde m oc r a t i c be ha vi or s a nd c onf l i c t be t w e e n s t a t e or ga ns t o be c om e i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d. B y t he t i m e a

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148 c ons t i t ut i on w a s a dopt e d i n 1956 a nt i de m oc r a t i c i nt e r e s t s ha d a l r e a dy a c c um ul a t e d w i t hi n t he m i l i t a r y a nd bur e a uc r a c y. T he c onf l i c t u a l r e l a t i ons hi p be t w e e n br a nc he s of t he c i vi l i a n gove r nm e nt be c a m e r out i ni z e d due t o t he e nt r e nc he d i nt e r e s t s of bot h i ns t i t ut i ons ( E l s t e r 1995, 381 83) A t t e m pt s t o f o r m a na t i ona l i de nt i t y i n P a ki s t a n ha ve a l s o unde r m i ne d t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s C om m i t m e nt s t o I s l a m a nd I s l a m i c pr i nc i pl e s of l a w a nd s t a t e c r a f t i n t he e s t a bl i s hm e nt of t he c ons t i t ut i on c oupl e d w i t h ne bul ous a nd c ha ngi ng pr ot e c t i ons f o r r e l i gi ous m i nor i t i e s ha s j us t i f i e d t he di s c r i m i na t i on a nd us e of f or c e a ga i ns t m i no r i t y gr oups by t he na t i ona l a nd s t a t e gove r nm e nt s i n P a ki s t a n. A t t e m pt s t o c ons t r uc t a uni f i e d l a ngua ge a nd c ul t u r e f o r t he di ve r s e e t hni c i t i e s of P a ki s t a n a l s o c ont r i but e d t o t he s t a t e s a l r e a dy s t r a i ne d c e nt e r pe r i phe r y r e l a t i ons C onc e r ns ove r c ul t ur a l s ur vi va l a nd pol i t i c a l i s ol a t i on m ot i va t e d vi ol e nt s e c e s s i on m ove m e nt s or a nt i gove r nm e nt r i ot s i n B a l uc hi s t a n, S i ndh, t he N or t h W e s t F r ont i e r P r ovi nc e a nd E a s t P a ki s t a n ( H a qqa ni 2006. 227 28 ) R a t he r t ha n a i d i n t he c ons ol i da t i on a nd i nt e gr a t i on of t he ne w s t a t e a t t e m pt s t o i m pos e a uni f i e d i de nt i t y f r om t he t op dow n s t r e ng t he ne d s ub na t i ona l i de nt i t i e s a nd c r e a t e d a dyna m i c of oppos i t i on be t w e e n t he P unj a b a nd t he r e s t of t he pr ovi nc e s I n a ddi t i on t o a uni f i e d l a ngua ge a nd i nt e r p r e t a t i on of I s l a m t he a r m e d f or c e s ha ve a l s o c ons i s t e nt l y s e r ve d a s a pi l l a r of P a ki s t a ni na t i ona l i de nt i t y. T he m i l i t a r y i n P a ki s t a n be c a m e a s ym bol i c a nd p hys i c a l f or c e i n t he m a i nt e na nc e of na t i ona l i de nt i t y due t o t he c ons t r u c t i on of P a ki s t a ni na t i ona l i s m t hr ough oppo s i t i on a nd f e a r of I ndi a D e m oc r a t i c po l i t i c i a ns a s w e l l a s m i l i t a r y d i c t a t or s i n P a ki s t a n ha ve a t t e m pt e d t o uni t e t he p r ovi nc e s a nd m obi l i z e s uppor t by m a ni pul a t i ng f e a r of I ndi a n a ggr e s s i on a nd a nge r ove r K a s hm i r ( R i vi z i 1986, 1072 73 ) A l t hough t h i s

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149 t a c t i c l a r ge l y f a i l e d i n m a i nt a i ni ng t he na t i ona l i nt e gr i t y of P a ki s t a n, t he m i l i t a r y di d be c om e a poi nt of na t i ona l p r i de f or m a ny P a ki s t a ni s P ubl i c s uppor t f or t he m i l i t a r y w a s gr e a t l y i nc r e a s e d dur i ng t he f i r s t de m oc r a t i c e r a du e t o t he us e o f t he a r m e d f o r c e s i n i m pl e m e nt i ng s t a t e bui l di ng p r oj e c t s a nd r e l i e f pr o gr a m s T he pr o f e s s i ona l i s m of t he m i l i t a r y a nd i t s r ol e i n popul a r pol i c i e s gr a nt e d t he i ns t i t ut i on w i de s pr e a d s uppor t w hi c h w a s qui c kl y c a pi t a l i z e d on by a pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y de s pe r a t e t o c on s ol i da t e t he i r hol d on pow e r T he a ppoi nt m e nt of m i l i t a r y of f i c e r s t o po l i t i c a l pos i t i ons m os t not a bl y i n G hul a m M oha m m a d s C a bi ne t ope ne d t he doo r f o r a pol i t i c a l r ol e f or t he P a ki s t a ni a r m e d f or c e s T he m i l i t a r y s hi gh publ i c a ppr ova l pe r c e i ve d s t a b i l i t y, a nd pr e s t i ge a s w e l l a s t he pol i t i c i z a t i on of t he a r m e d f o r c e s by M us l i m L e a gue pol i t i c i a ns a l l ow e d t he m i l i t a r y t o de pos e t he de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt a nd i m pos e a m a r t i a l l a w r e gi m e i n 1958. F r om t he be gi nni ng of t he i ni t i a l m i l i t a r y r e gi m e o f A yub K ha n, t he a r m e d f o r c e s be c a m e a nd ha ve r e m a i ne d t he g r e a t e s t t hr e a t t o P a ki s t a ni de m oc r a c y. D e s pi t e t he r e t ur n t o de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m s of gove r na nc e i n 1971 1988 a nd 2008, t he m i l i t a r y ha s r e a s s e r t e d i t s c ont r ol of t he pol i t i c a l pr oc e s s a nd c ont i nue s t o m e na c e t he P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s T he m i l i t a r y ha s be e n a bl e t o r e e s t a bl i s h i t s pol i t i c a l pow e r a nd m a i nt a i n i t s pos i t i on t hr ough a va r i e t y of s t r a t e gi e s O ne o f t he m os t c r u c i a l f a c t or s i n t he a bi l i t y of t he P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y t o r e a s s e r t i t s pol i t i c a l a ut hor i t y i s t he a l l i a nc e be t w e e n t he a r m e d f or c e s a nd t he bur e a uc r a c y t ha t de ve l ope d dur i ng t he i ni t i a l de m oc r a t i c e r a T he a ppoi nt m e nt of m i l i t a r y of f i c e r s t o c i vi l s e r vi c e po s t s a nd t he c onc ur r e nt de ve l opm e nt of bot h i ns t i t ut i ons c r e a t e d a ne xus be t w e e n t he c om m a nd s t r uc t ur e s of t he m i l i t a r y a nd C S P D ur i ng e a c h m i l i t a r y r e gi m e t he bu r e a uc r a c y r e m a i ne d i nt a c t a nd r e t a i ne d c ont r ol

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150 of t he a dm i ni s t r a t i on of t he s t a t e w hi l e r e c e i vi ng di r e c t i on f r o m m i l i t a r y l e a de r s hi p ( D i a m ond 2000, 104 ) T he a bi l i t y o f t he m i l i t a r y t o a s s um e f or m a l pow e r w i t hout c ha ngi ng i t s i nt e r na l s t r uc t u r e t o a c c om m oda t e s t a t e i ns t i t ut i ons ha s a l l ow e d t he a r m e d f or c e s t o e s t a bl i s h a nd m a i nt a i n m i l i t a r y r ul e I n o t he r e xa m pl e s of m i l i t a r y r e gi m e s t he c ha nge s i n c om m a nd s t r uc t ur e s ys t e m s of pr om ot i on, a nd i n t e r na l di s c i pl i ne t ha t oc c ur w he n t he a r m e d f or c e s c o opt c i vi l i a n pow e r s t r uc t ur e s t hr e a t e ns t he m i l i t a r y a s a n i ns t i t ut i on, a nd of t e n f a c i l i t a t e s a r e t r e a t ba c k t o t h e ba r r a c ks ( S t e pa n 1988 122 23) T he a l m os t e xc l us i ve r e c r ui t m e nt of m i l i t a r y pe r s o nne l a nd c i vi l s e r va nt s f r om t he P unj a b a l s o i ns ul a t e d bot h i ns t i t ut i ons f r om t he r e gi ona l f a c t i ona l i s m t ha t pl a gue d t he c i vi l i a n gove r nm e nt T hi s p r a c t i c e a l l ow e d t he m i l i t a r y t o e s t a bl i s h pa t r ona ge ne t w o r ks a m ong P unj a bi e l i t e s T he e t hni c c om pos i t i on of t he a r m e d f o r c e s a l s o a l l ow e d f or vi ol e nt s uppr e s s i on of s e c e s s i oni s t m ove m e nt s due t o t he l a c k of r e pr e s e nt a t i on of e t hni c m i nor i t i e s w i t hi n t he m i l i t a r y. A not he r c r uc i a l f a c t or i n t he m i l i t a r y s a bi l i t y t o m a i nt a i n i t s pos i t i on of pol i t i c a l pow e r i s t he e xt e r na l s uppor t a nd f undi ng r e c e i ve d by t he U ni t e d S t a t e s a nd ot he r w e s t e r n pow e r s T he s t r a t e gi c i m por t a nc e of P a ki s t a n du r i ng t he C ol d W a r a nd t he a l l i a nc e m a de by P a ki s t a ni l e a de r s w i t h t he U S pr e ve nt e d t he de ve l op m e nt of i nt e r na t i ona l pr e s s ur e f or P a ki s t a n s m i l i t a r y r e g i m e s t o s t e p dow n. W he n t he C ol d W a r e nde d, t hi s t r e nd w a s br i e f l y r e ve r s e d, a nd M us ha r r a f s r e gi m e w a s i ni t i a l l y pr e s s ur e d by t he U S a nd U K t o de m oc r a t i z e T h i s pr e s s ur e w a s qui c kl y r e m ove d f ol l ow i ng t he S e pt e m be r 11 t h t e r r o r i s t a t t a c ks a nd t he be gi nni ng of t he w a r on t e r r or ( S ha h 2002, 70 72 ) A l t hough t he i m pos i t i on of m i l i t a r y r ul e c r e a t e d s i gni f i c a nt hur dl e s t o de m oc r a t i z a t i on i n P a ki s t a n, t he m i l i t a r y w oul d ne ve r ha ve ove r s t e ppe d i t s boun da r i e s

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151 ha d i t not be e n f or t he r e pe a t e d f a i l ur e s o f P a ki s t a n i pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y. T he pe r i od of m i l i t a r y r ul e be ga n due t o t he c or r upt i on a nd i ne f f i c i e nc y of t he de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt T he r e gi m e s of Z i a A l H uq a nd M us ha r r a f w e r e i ni t i a t e d i n r e s pons e t o pe r c e i ve d t hr e a t s t o t he m i l i t a r y by P a r l i a m e nt but t he y w e r e s uc c e s s f ul due t o t he l ow publ i c a ppr ova l of t he de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt s ( C ha udhr y e t a l 2009, 347 ) P ol i t i c a l s oc i e t y i n P a ki s t a n ha s f a i l e d t o de ve l op a de m oc r a t i c c ha r a c t e r due t o t he de e pl y e nt r e nc he d e t hni c i nt e r e s t s a nd s uppr e s s i on of pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s du r i ng m i l i t a r y r ul e A l t hough t he P a ki s t a ni f ounde r s w e r e i nhe r e nt l y unde m oc r a t i c i n t he i r be ha vi or a n d be l i e f s t he m a i na nt a nc e of f a vor a bl e gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s c oul d ha ve ove r t i m e f a c i l i t a t e d t he de ve l opm e nt of a s t a bl e pa r t y s ys t e m di s c i pl i ne d e l i t e s a nd m e c ha ni s m s of publ i c ove r s i ght I ns t e a d, P a ki s t a n s pe r i ods of a ut hor i t a r i a n r ul e e f f e c t i ve l y r e s e t de m o c r a t i c pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y, e l i m i na t i ng t he oppor t uni t y f or po l i t i c a l l e a r ni ng pa c t m a ki ng a n d t he r out i ni z a t i on of de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s w i t hi n t he gove r nm e nt ( M us ht a q e t a l 2 011, 49 ) T he e na c t m e nt of E B O D O dur i ng t he K ha n r e gi m e a nd t he ba n on pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s dur i ng Z i a a l H uq s r ul e m e a nt t ha t l a t e r de m oc r a t i c gove r nm e nt s w oul d ha ve f e w i f a ny e xpe r i e nc e d pol i t i c i a ns a nd t ha t po l i t i c a l pa r t i e s w oul d ha ve t o be r e bui l t D ue t o t he s e c ondi t i ons pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s i n P a ki s t a n ha ve ne ve r e vol ve d t he or ga ni z a t i on, c a pa c i t y or i nt e r na l de m oc r a t i c s t r uc t ur e t ha t c ha r a c t e r i z e s t he pa r t y s ys t e m of c ons ol i da t e d de m oc r a c i e s I ns t e a d, pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s t ha t de ve l ope d ( or r e e m e r ge d) a s m a s s pr ot e s t m ove m e nt s a ga i ns t a m a r t i a l l a w r e gi m e ha ve m a i nt a i ne d t he s t r uc t u r e of a c i vi l m ove m e nt W i t hout t he a bi l i t y t o de ve l op l a s t i ng ne t w or k s of s uppor t a nd or ga ni z a t i ona l c a pa c i t y due t o a ut ho r i t a r i a n ba c ks l i de s P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s ha ve r e l i e d on e s t a bl i s hi ng pa t r ona ge ne t w or ks a m ong r e l i gi ous gr oups l a ndl o r ds a nd

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152 bus i ne s s c l a s s e s I n a ddi t i on t o da m a gi ng t he de ve l opm e nt of a de m o c r a t i c pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y, l ong pe r i ods o f m a r t i a l l a w ha ve a l s o c ons t r a i ne d t he gr ow t h of c i vi l s oc i e t y i n P a ki s t a n. A l t hough publ i c p r ot e s t s a nd r i ot s ha ve be e n i ns t r um e nt a l i n t he r e m ova l o f e a c h m i l i t a r y r e gi m e i n P a ki s t a n, t he f r e que nt a nd of t e n vi ol e nt s uppr e s s i on of a s s oc i a t i ona l l i f e ha s pr e ve nt e d t he de ve l opm e nt o f a l i ve l y de m oc r a t i c a nd pow e r f ul c i vi l s oc i e t y c a pa bl e of m a i nt a i ni ng de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons ( A hm e d a nd S t e pha n 2010 506 ) F i na l l y, T he m i l i t a r y dom i na nc e of t he P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c a l pr oc e s s ha s ha d s e ve r e c ons e que nc e s on t he c ount r y s e c onom i c de ve l op m e nt M i l i t a r y gove r nm e nt s r out i ne l y a l l oc a t e d i m m e ns e por t i ons of t he na t i ona l budge t t o t he a r m e d f or c e s a t t he e xpe ns e of t he hi gh popul a t i on of i m pove r i s he d P a ki s t a ni s E ve n dur i ng de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s c i vi l i a n pol i t i c i a ns of t e n de vot e d a m a j or i t y o f t he budge t t o t he m i l i t a r y i n a t t e m pt s t o e ns ur e t he l oya l t y of t he a r m e d f o r c e s ( B e hur i a 20 09, 16 17 ) D e s pi t e t he m a ny pr obl e m s a nd r e pe a t e d f a i l ur e s o f t he P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s i m pr ove m e nt be t w e e n de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e s i s c l e a r l y e vi de nt E t hni c f a c t i ona l i s m a bus e s of pow e r a nd unc ons t i t ut i ona l t a c t i c s ha ve de c l i ne d a m ong de m oc r a t i c pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y. D e m oc r a t i c e l i t e s ha ve a l s o de m ons t r a t e d a hi ghe r de gr e e of di s c i pl i ne a nd r e s pe c t f or e s t a bl i s he d nor m s a nd pr oc e dur e s of gove r na nc e F ur t he r m or e t he j udi c i a r y t ha t ha d onc e a c c e pt e d a nd s uppor t e d m i l i t a r y r ul e ha s gr ow n i nc r e a s i ngl y i nde pe nde nt a nd a s s e r t i ve i n i t s r ol e a s c ons t i t ut i on a l a r bi t e r I t i s s t i l l t oo e a r l y t o j udge t he young de m oc r a t i c r e gi m e i ni t i a t e d i n 2008 A l t hough gr e a t e r e l i t e di s c i pl i ne a nd j udi c i a l i nde pe nde nc e ha ve undoubt e dl y i nc r e a s e d P a ki s t a n s pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on, hi s t or y ha s s how n t ha t a n a s s e r t i ve m i l i t a r y, l a c k of na t i o na l uni t y, a nd c onf l i c t be t w e e n gove r nm e nt a l i ns t i t ut i ons c a n e a s i l y r e ve r s e t he s e de m oc r a t i c ga i ns

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153 C h ap te r 5: C on c l u s i on T he di ve r ge nt p r oc e s s e s a nd out c om e s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n pr ovi de a uni que c a s e f or c om pa r a t i ve s t udi e s o n r e gi m e c ha nge na t i on bui l di ng a nd i ns t i t ut i ona l de ve l opm e nt D e s pi t e t he c onc ur r e nt t i m e f r a m e f o r e a c h na t i on s t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s a s w e l l a s t he a ppa r e nt s i m i l a r i t y of hi s t or i c a l pol i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l c ondi t i ons I ndi a be c a m e a c ons ol i da t e d de m oc r a c y, w hi l e t he P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s w a s r e pe a t e dl y s t a l l e d a nd r e ve r s e d. T he s uc c e s s of de m oc r a c y i n I ndi a a nd i t s f a i l ur e t o f ul l y t a ke r oot i n P a ki s t a n ha ve m a ny i m por t a nt i m pl i c a t i ons f or t he or i e s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on a nd c ons ol i da t i on T he a bi l i t y of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons t o be c om e f i r m l y e s t a bl i s he d i n a l a r ge m ul t i e t hni c s t a t e s uc h a s I ndi a a nd t he s us t e na nc e of I ndi a n de m oc r a c y de s pi t e s l ow e c onom i c de ve l opm e nt d e c a de s of s i ngl e pa r t y r ul e a nd t he pe r s i s t e nc e of e t hni c pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s c ha l l e nge m a ny of t he dom i na nt a s s um pt i ons of de m oc r a t i z a t i on t he or y. P a ki s t a n s r e pe a t e d c yc l e of m i l i t a r y r u l e a nd de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on c a n a l s o yi e l d ne w i ns i ght i nt o pr oc e s s e s of m i l i t a r y i nt e r ve nt i on i n c i vi l i a n pol i t i c s a nd m e t hods of m a i nt a i n i ng m i l i t a r y r ul e U nde r s t a ndi ng t he f or c e s a nd c ondi t i ons t ha t l e d t o de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i n I ndi a a nd a ut hor i t a r i a ni s m i n P a ki s t a n ha s r e qui r e d a c om pr e he ns i ve i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t a pp r o a c h w i t h a f oc us on hi s t or i c a l pr oc e s s e s I n t r a c i ng t he e vol ut i o n of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n f r o m t he c ol oni a l e r a t o t he pr e s e nt da y, t hi s s t udy r e ve a l s t he i m pa c t of hi s t or i c a l l e ga c i e s a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s on pr oc e s s e s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i o n. S om e m e t hods f or a na l yz i ng hi s t or y a nd c ul t ur e i n b r oa dl y c om pa r a t i ve r e s e a r c h i n pol i t i c a l s c i e nc e ut i l i z e na r r ow

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154 t i m e f r a m e s a nd s ha l l ow c ha r a c t e r i z a t i ons o f s oc i a l s ys t e m s out s i de of t he gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s be i ng obs e r ve d. S uc h a n a pp r oa c h, w he n a ppl i e d t o t he t w o c a s e s t udi e s of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n w oul d f a i l t o r e ve a l t he c r i t i c a l di f f e r e nc e s i n i de nt i t y s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e a nd une ve n hi s t or i c a l de ve l opm e nt be t w e e n I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni e l i t e s t ha t l e d t o di ve r ge nt t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s e s A de t a i l e d e xa m i na t i on of pr e c ol oni a l i de nt i t i e s a nd s oc i a l s ys t e m s i n S out h A s i a a nd t he pr oc e s s e s by w hi c h t he B r i t i s h a ut hor i t i e s a l t e r e d a nd ha r de ne d s oc i a l di vi s i ons r e ve a l e d va s t i ne qua l i t i e s be t w e e n I ndi a n M us l i m s a nd H i ndus D e s pi t e a s ur f a c e s i m i l a r i t y i n hi s t or i c a l s oc i a l a nd pol i t i c a l c ondi t i ons upon i nde pe nde nc e a hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t a pp r oa c h e xpos e d s i gni f i c a nt di s pa r i t i e s be t w e e n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n i n 1947. T he e xpe r i e n c e d a nd de m oc r a t i c pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y, l i ve l y c i vi l s oc i e t y, e f f i c i e nt s t a t e a ppa r a t us di ve r s e e c onom y, a nd c om m i t m e nt t o t he r ul e of l a w pr e s e nt i n I ndi a a nd l a c ki ng i n P a ki s t a n w e r e pr i m a r i l y c ont i nge nt upon a hos t of hi s t or i c a l i ne qua l i t i e s o f e xpe r i e nc e a nd c ondi t i ons be t w e e n M us l i m s a nd H i ndus unde r c ol oni a l a dm i ni s t r a t i on L oc a t i ng t he e vol ut i ona r y t r a j e c t or y of de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n w i t hi n unf ol di ng hi s t or i c a l p r oc e s s e s a nd a na l yz i ng c ondi t i ons a t i nde pe nde nc e t hr ough va r i ous t he o r i e s on de m oc r a t i z a t i on i l l us t r a t e d I ndi a s hi ghe r pr os pe c t s f or a c hi e vi ng de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. L i nz a nd S t e p a n s f i ve a r e na s s e r ve d a s a us e f ul or ga ni z a t i ona l s c he m a f or e va l ua t i ng pr os pe c t s f or de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on i n bot h s t a t e s E a c h a r e na c or r e s ponde d t o a s e t o f i ns t i t ut i ons c ondi t i ons a nd pr oc e s s e s t ha t a f f e c t e d t he e vol ut i ona r y t r a j e c t or y of t he I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c a l s ys t e m s L i nz a nd S t e pa n s f i ve a r e na s a r e pa r t i c ul a r l y e f f e c t i v e a na l yt i c a l l e ns e s i n t ha t e a c h a r e na i s not t r e a t e d a s a di s c r e t e e nt i t y. I ns t e a d, t he a ut hor s s t r e s s t he i nt e r c onne c t i ons a nd

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155 de ve l opm e nt a l pr oc e s s e s of e a c h a r e na a s vi t a l c o m pone nt s i n a c hi e vi ng de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. U s i ng p r oc e s s t r a c i ng m e t hods t o d e t a i l t he de ve l opm e nt o f de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n, how e ve r s how e d t ha t s om e a r e na s of de m oc r a t i z a t i on w e r e m or e i ns t r um e nt a l i n t he t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s t ha n ot he r s I ndi a s e c onom y upon i nde pe nde nc e w a s s t r onge r a nd m o r e di ve r s e t ha n P a ki s t a n s a nd t he s t a t e e na c t e d s oc i a l i s t pr ogr a m s a i m e d a t c r e a t i ng a m od e r n e c onom y a nd w e l l r e gul a t e d m a r ke t H ow e ve r t he s e i ni t i a t i ve s f a i l e d t o a dd r e s s I ndi a s r a m pa nt pove r t y, a nd ne i t he r na t i on a c hi e ve d t he ki nd o f e c onom i c g r ow t h o r s t a bi l i t y t r a di t i ona l l y c r e di t e d by pol i t i c a l s c i e nt i s t s w i t h s pur r i ng de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on. T he g r e a t e r s ha r e of t he I C S i nhe r i t e d by I ndi a a n d t he w e a k a nd di s o r ga ni z e d s t a t e of t he P a ki s t a ni bu r e a uc r a c y w oul d s e e m t o s i gna l t he de ve l opm e nt of a s t a bl e a nd e f f i c i e nt s t a t e a ppa r a t us i n I ndi a a nd i t s f a i l ur e t o e m e r ge i n P a ki s t a n. I ns t e a d, t he bur e a uc r a c y i n I ndi a gr e w t oo qui c kl y a nd be c a m e r a pi dl y ove r bur de ne d a s t he s c ope of e a r l y e c onom i c pr ogr a m s i nc r e a s e d. A l t hough s t i l l a bl e t o s e r ve t he i r ba s i c f unc t i ons m a ny s t a t e or ga ns i n I ndi a be c a m e c or r upt a nd i ne f f i c i e nt I n c ont r a s t t he bu r e a uc r a c y i n P a ki s t a n be c a m e hi ghl y e f f i c i e nt a nd s t a bl e but r a t he r t ha n s e r vi ng a s a bul w a r k a ga i ns t a ut hor i t a r i a ni s m a s L i nz a nd S t e pa n s ugge s t e d, t he C S P be c a m e a pow e r f ul a l l y of t he m i l i t a r y, e na bl i ng t he a r m e d f o r c e s t o m a i nt a i n l e n gt hy pe r i ods of r ul e I ndi a a l s o i nhe r i t e d a gr e a t e r pr opo r t i on o f t he j udge s l a w ye r s a n d c our t f unc t i ona r i e s f r om t he c ol oni a l l e ga l s ys t e m a nd t he f oundi ng e l i t e s of I n di a e vi nc e d a gr e a t e r de di c a t i on t o e s t a bl i s hi ng a r ul e of l a w t ha n di d t he M us l i m L e a gue gove r nm e nt of P a ki s t a n. T he f a i l ur e t o e s t a bl i s h a de m oc r a t i c c ons t i t ut i on du r i n g t he f i r s t de c a de of i nde pe nde nc e gr e a t l y c ont r i but e d t o t he s t a l l e d t r a ns i t i on p r oc e s s i n P a ki s t a n. D e s pi t e i t s unpr om i s i ng

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156 s t a r t how e ve r t he j udi c i a r y of P a ki s t a n ha s s how n i nc r e a s e d i nde pe nde nc e a nd c om m i t m e nt t o m a i nt a i ni ng a de m oc r a t i c r ul e of l a w f r e que nt l y s e r vi ng a s a s our c e o f c r i t i c i s m a nd pr ot e s t a ga i ns t m i l i t a r y r e gi m e s a nd a bus e s of pow e r by e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s C i vi l s oc i e t y w oul d pl a y a pr om i ne nt r ol e i n t he I n di a n a nd P a ki s t a ni t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s C i vi c a s s oc i a t i ons w e r e i ns t r um e nt a l i n m a i nt a i ni ng t he de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n I ndi a a nd i n a c hi e vi ng pol i t i c a l l i be r a l i z a t i on i n P a ki s t a n dur i ng pe r i ods o f m a r t i a l r ul e I n I ndi a c i vi l s oc i e t y ha s s how n a r e m a r ka bl e a bi l i t y t o i nf l ue nc e po l i c i e s a nd e ns ur e gove r nm e nt a l a c c ount a bi l i t y. F ur t he r m or e a va r i e t y o f l ow e r c a s t e a nd c l a s s gr oups a s w e l l a s t r a di t i ona l l y di s e nf r a nc hi s e d m i n or i t y popul a t i ons ha ve be e n a bl e t o pr ot e c t t he i r r i ght s a nd i nc r e a s e t he i r s ha r e o f pow e r i n t he gove r nm e nt t hr ough t he c r e a t i on of a dvoc a c y gr oups a nd pr ot e s t m ove m e nt s i n I ndi a n c i vi l s oc i e t y. T he s t r e ngt h of I ndi a s c i vi l s oc i e t y c a n be a t t r i but e d t o a va r i e t y of f a c t or s A l t hough m a ny or ga ni z a t i ons t r a di t i ona l l y a s s oc i a t e d w i t h c i vi l s oc i e t y, s uc h a s uni ons w om e n s m ove m e nt s l a w ye r s gr oups a nd vol unt e e r o r ga ni z a t i ons ha ve m a t e r i a l i z e d i n I ndi a t he i nt e r na l or ga ni z a t i on o f I ndi a s na t i ve s oc i a l di vi s i ons ha ve a l s o c ont r i but e d i m m e ns e l y t o t he c r e a t i on of a de m oc r a t i c c i vi l s oc i e t y. T he m ul t i t ude of or ga ni z a t i ons ba s e d on c a s t e vi l l a ge or e t hni c i t y ha ve de ve l ope d ( or m a i nt a i ne d) a de m oc r a t i c c ha r a c t e r a nd r e s pe c t f or e s t a bl i s he d pr oc e dur e s of di s put e s e t t l e m e nt a nd c ont e s t i ng pow e r A l t hough t he s e or ga ni z a t i ons l a c k t he vol unt a r y ba s i s of m e m be r s hi p t ha t de f i ne s m os t c l a s s i f i c a t i ons of c i vi l s oc i e t y t he i r s t r uc t ur e na t u r e a nd pu r pos e a r e ot he r w i s e c om pl e t e l y i de nt i c a l t o c i vi l s oc i e t y i n ot he r de m o c r a c i e s C i vi l s oc i e t y w a s l e s s de ve l ope d i n ne w l y i nde pe nde nt P a ki s t a n, a nd f e w ve hi c l e s f or p r ot e s t or c r i t i que e xi s t e d a ga i ns t t he gove r nm e nt or l a nde d a r i s t oc r a c y f o r m e r l y

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157 s uppor t e d by t he B r i t i s h. I nt e r m i t t e nt pe r i ods of m i l i t a r y r u l e a nd m a r t i a l l a w s e ve r e l y r e s t r i c t e d t he de ve l opm e nt o f c i vi l s oc i e t y i n P a ki s t a n by l i m i t i ng f r e e dom s of s pe e c h a nd a s s e m bl y a nd c e ns or i ng t he m e di a N e ve r t he l e s s c i vi l a s s oc i a t i ons ha ve be e n a bl e t o pr e s s ur e m i l i t a r y r e gi m e s t o de m oc r a t i z e t h r ough p r ot e s t s boyc ot t s c i vi l di s obe di e nc e c a m pa i gns a nd r i ot s T he a bi l i t y of c i vi l a s s oc i a t i ons i n P a ki s t a n t o o r ga ni z e r e s i s t a nc e t o unde m oc r a t i c e l i t e be ha vi or de s pi t e de c a de s of r e pr e s s i on a nd t he m a i nt e na nc e of s oc i a l a nd e c onom i c i ne qua l i t i e s i s due i n l a r ge pa r t t o t he r ol e o f r e l i gi on i n t he P a ki s t a ni s t a t e T he de f i ni t i on of P a ki s t a n a s a n I s l a m i c R e p ubl i c a nd t he us e of r e l i gi on t o m a i nt a i n na t i ona l c ohe s i on by P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c i a ns ha s i nc r e a s e d t he pow e r of r e l i gi ous or ga ni z a t i ons a nd t he c l e r gy A l t hough s uc h gr ou ps ha ve a t t i m e s s uppor t e d m a r t i a l l a w r e gi m e s m os t not a bl y unde r G e ne r a l Z i a a l H uq, t he s e or ga ni z a t i ons ha ve a l s o m obi l i z e d pr ot e s t s a nd a ppl i e d p ubl i c p r e s s ur e t o s uc h r e gi m e s T he i m por t a nc e of I s l a m i n de f i ni t i ons of P a ki s t a n na t i ona l i t y g r a nt s r e l i gi ous l y ba s e d or ga ni z a t i ons a hi gh de gr e e of f r e e dom a nd i nde pe nde nc e f r om t he gove r nm e nt e ve n i n t i m e s of m a r t i a l l a w T hi s s i t ua t i on ha s a l l ow e d m os que s r e l i gi ous gr oups a n d di vi s i ons of t he c l e r gy t o r e m a i n e f f e c t i ve c r i t i c s a nd e ne m i e s of m i l i t a r y r e gi m e s t h r oughout P a ki s t a n s hi s t or y D e s pi t e t he pow e r of r e l i gi ous g r oups i n P a ki s t a n, t he f r e q ue nt pe r i ods of a ut hor i t a r i a n i nt e r ve nt i on i n P a ki s t a ni c i vi l s oc i e t y ha ve l i m i t e d t he a bi l i t y o f c i vi l s oc i e t y t o m oni t or a nd e nf or c e e l i t e c om pl i a nc e w i t h a de m oc r a t i c r ul e of l a w T he s e c ondi t i ons ha ve a l s o pr e ve nt e d t he de ve l opm e nt of w i de ne t w or ks of a s s oc i a t i on, l e a vi ng c i vi l or ga ni z a t i ons i n P a ki s t a n di vi de d a nd i s ol a t e d. A c c e pt i ng t he i nf l ue nc e of c i vi l s oc i e t y on t he de v e l opm e nt of I ndi a n a nd P a ki s t a ni de m oc r a c y, t he na t u r e of pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y i n bot h s t a t e s a s w e l l a s t he de c i s i ons

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158 a nd phi l os ophi e s of i ndi vi dua l pol i t i c a l e l i t e s f r om i nde pe nde nc e t o t he pr e s e nt ha ve e xe r c i s e d t he gr e a t e s t i nf l ue nc e on p r oc e s s e s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on. T he s uc c e s s of t he I N C i n t he p r ovi nc i a l e l e c t i ons unde r c ol oni a l r ul e gr a nt e d t he f ounde r s of I ndi a a l a r ge num be r of e l i t e s w ho w e r e e xpe r i e nc e d w i t h a nd d e di c a t e d t o de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m s of gove r na nc e T he M us l i m L e a gue f a i l e d t o w i n a m a j or i t y of M us l i m s e a t s unt i l l a t e i n t he c ol oni a l e r a a nd ha d f e w m e m be r s w i t h a ny m e a ni ngf ul e xpe r i e nc e T he L e a gue s c om m i t m e nt s t o de m oc r a c y w e r e a l s o s om e w ha t que s t i ona bl e gi ve n t he pa r t y s f e a r o f dw a r f e d r e pr e s e nt a t i on i n a H i ndu m a j or i t y de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m U pon i nde pe nde nc e t he i nt e r na l c ha r a c t e r o f bot h pa r t i e s be c a m e i m por t a nt f a c t or s i n t he vi t a l f or m a t i ve ye a r s of I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n. T he de m oc r a t i c p r oc e dur e s f or a ppoi nt m e nt s a nd de c i s i on m a ki ng i n t he I N C a s w e l l a s t he pa r t y s s t r uc t ur e o f na t i ona l a nd s t a t e a s s e m bl i e s l e d t o t he a dopt i on of a f e de r a l gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e a nd a i d e d i n t he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of de m oc r a t i c nor m s de s pi t e ye a r s of one pa r t y r u l e T he unde m oc r a t i c c om m a nd s t r uc t ur e of t he L e a g ue a nd t he dom i na t i on of t he pa r t y by M uha j i r s l e d t o i s s ue s of r e pr e s e nt a t i on a nd s hor t s i ght e d t a c t i c s a i m e d a t m a i nt a i ni ng pow e r a t t he e xpe ns e of de m oc r a t i c pr oc e dur e s T he de m oc r a t i c c ha r a c t e r o f e a r l y I ndi a n pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y a l l ow e d t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y t o c r a f t a s t a bl e a nd r e pr e s e nt a t i ve gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e a s w e l l a s a r u l e of l a w t ha t pr o t e c t e d i ndi vi dua l r i ght s a nd f r e e dom s T he undi s c i pl i ne d a nd c or r up t of f i c i a l s t ha t m a de up t he P a ki s t a ni i nt e r i m gove r nm e nt c a us e d t he c ons t i t ut i on dr a f t i n g pr oc e s s t o dr a g on f o r ni ne ye a r s pr e ve nt i ng t he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of de m oc r a t i c be ha vi or p r oc e dur e s a nd no r m s B y t he t i m e a c ons t i t ut i on w a s f i na l l y a dopt e d, unde m oc r a t i c be ha vi or a nd i nt e r e s t s ha d a l r e a dy be c om e de e pl y e nt r e nc he d, a nd t he doc um e nt w a s a l l but i gno r e d. T he e f f i c i e nt

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159 pr of e s s i ona l a nd de m oc r a t i c na t u r e of I ndi a s f oun di ng e l i t e a nd t he c ha ot i c a nd c onf l i c t ua l pr oc e s s of s t a t e bui l di ng i n e a r l y P a ki s t a n f or m e d t he ba s i c c ondi t i ons a nd f or c e s t ha t gui de d e a c h s t a t e s s ubs e que nt i ns t i t ut i ona l e vol ut i on. T he di f f e r e nc e s i n pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y upon i nde pe nde nc e s e nt I ndi a a l ong t he pa t h o f de m oc r a t i c c ons ol i da t i on, w hi l e P a ki s t a n d r i f t e d d i s a s t r ous l y t ow a r ds a ut hor i t a r i a ni s m f r om t h e ve r y be gi nni ng. A s t he i ns t i t ut i ons of gove r na nc e de ve l ope d a l ong di ve r ge nt pa t hs i n I ndi a a nd P a ki s t a n, t he s t r uc t ur e s pr oc e dur e s a nd nor m s c r e a t e d t o m a na ge e t hni c pl u r a l i s m be c a m e c r uc i a l f a c t or s i n t he pr oc e s s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on or a ut hor i t a r i a n ba c ks l i di ng. T he I ndi a n C ons t i t ut i on e s t a bl i s he d a s e c ul a r s t a t e a nd pr ot e c t i ons f r om s t a t e i nt e r f e r e nc e f or t he di ve r s e r e l i gi ons a nd c ul t ur e s of t he R e publ i c T he r e s e r va t i on of s e a t s i n P a r l i a m e nt f or e t hni c m i no r i t i e s a nd t he f e de r a l s t r uc t ur e o f t he gove r nm e nt w hi c h gr a nt e d a ut onom y t o e t hni c a l l y c on f i gur e d s t a t e s c r e a t e d a pow e r s ha r i ng s ys t e m t ha t s uc c e s s f ul l y m e di a t e d a m ong I ndi a s di ve r s e p opul a t i ons A l t hough vi ol e nt c onf l i c t s a m ong e t hni c na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s a nd t he gove r nm e nt ha ve o c c ur r e d, m os t not a bl y i n t he P unj a b dur i ng t he 1980s m os t s ub na t i ona l i de nt i t i e s ha ve be e n s uc c e s s f ul l y a bs or be d i nt o t he s t r uc t ur e of t he R e publ i c t h r ough t he c r e a t i on o f e t hni c s t a t e s or pr ovi s i ons s uc h a s gr e a t e r a ut onom y o r gove r nm e n t a l pr i vi l e ge s T he e m e r ge nc e a nd pe r s i s t e nc e of pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s t ha t c ut a c r os s s t a t e bounda r i e s a nd s oc i a l c l e a va ge s a l s o unde r c ut e t hni c di vi s i ons w hi l e i ns t i t ut i ona l i z i ng p r oc e s s e s of gr oup c oope r a t i on w i t hi n r e pr e s e nt a t i ve pa r t y s t r uc t ur e s A l t hough e t hni c r e l i gi ous a nd c a s t e pa r t i e s ha ve pe r s i s t e d i n I ndi a t he s uc c e s s of na t i ona l pa r t i e s h a s pr e ve nt e d s uc h or ga ni z a t i ons f r om i nc r e a s i ng i nt e r gr oup hos t i l i t i e s or r e pr e s e nt i ng na r r ow i nt e r e s t s a t t he e xpe ns e of

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160 na t i ona l pol i c i e s I ns t e a d, t he bi pol a r pa r t y s ys t e m t ha t ha s e m e r ge d be t w e e n t he I N C a nd B J P ha s a l l ow e d pa r t i e s r e pr e s e nt i ng m i no r i t y popul a t i ons t o i nc r e a s e t he i r pow e r t hr ough r e p r e s e nt a t i on i n br oa d c oa l i t i ons T he r e l i a nc e of bot h m a i n pa r t i e s on m a i nt a i ni ng c oa l i t i ons t o f or m t he gove r nm e nt ha s e s t a bl i s he d i nf or m a l pow e r s ha r i ng a r r a nge m e nt s e na bl i ng m i no r i t y pa r t i e s t o i nc r e a s e t he i r i n f l ue nc e i n t he s t a t e l e ve l a nd na t i ona l gove r nm e nt s T he c ons t r uc t i on of I ndi a n na t i ona l i de nt i t y by N e hr u a nd hi s c ont e m po r a r i e s a l s o c ont r i but e d t o t he c ohe s i on of t he s t a t e T he a voi d a nc e of pa r t i c ul a r r e l i gi ous o r c ul t u r a l s ym bol s i n t he c ons t i t ut i on a nd de f i ni t i ons o f I nd i a a l l ow e d f or a t e r r i t or i a l l y ba s e d a nd i nc l us i ve na t i ona l i t y t ha t i nc o r por a t e d r a t he r t ha n s uppr e s s e d e t hni c r e l i gi ous c a s t e or r e gi ona l i de nt i t i e s A l t hough t he s e c ul a r de f i ni t i on of I ndi a n na t i ona l i t y ha s gr ow n w e a ke r w i t h t he r i s e of t he B J P a nd t he g r ow t h o f H i ndu na t i ona l i s m N e hr u s c ons t r uc t i on of na t i ona l i de nt i t y m a i nt a i ne d t he t e r r i t or i a l a nd i de ol ogi c a l uni t y of I ndi a f or de c a de s E ve n a s t he e t hni c c ha uvi ni s t B J P c o ns ol i da t e s i t s pos i t i on i n I ndi a s ne w l y s t a bi l i z e d bi pol a r pa r t y s ys t e m t he pa r t y ha s s ho w n s i gns of r e t u r ni ng t o a m o r e s e c ul a r i de ol ogy of gove r na nc e T he ne e d t o i nc or po r a t e p ol i t i c a l pa r t i e s r e pr e s e nt i ng l ow e r c a s t e s or r e l i gi ous m i nor i t i e s i n t o gove r ni ng c oa l i t i ons ha s f or c e d t he B J P t o t e m pe r i t s m e s s a ge a nd pol i c i e s I n r e c e nt ye a r s t he B J P ha s a ba ndone d i t s m i l i t a nt l y a nt i M us l i m m e s s a ge a nd r e l i a nc e on r e l i gi ous a ppe a l s t o m obi l i z e s uppor t i n f a vor o f a ge ne r a l a r gum e nt f or r e l i gi ous va l ue s i n publ i c po l i c i e s a nd s t a t e i ns t i t ut i ons T he B J P ha s a l s o a dopt e d a m or e i nc l us i ve de f i ni t i on o f H i ndui s m a nd I ndi a n s oc i e t y, c l a i m i ng t ha t M us l i m s a nd S i khs c a n be c ons i de r e d H i ndu due t o t he i r pos i t i on w i t hi n a s o c i a l s ys t e m ba s e d on H i ndui s m T he r e duc t i on of r e l i gi ous l y c ha r ge d r he t or i c a nd pol i c i e s by t he

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161 B J P a nd t he i nc l us i on of M us l i m s C hr i s t i a ns a nd S i khs i n t he pa r t y a nd t he c oa l i t i on i t l e a ds de m ons t r a t e t he c ont i nue d i nf l ue nc e o f t he s e c ul a r de f i ni t i on of I ndi a n na t i ona l i t y, a s w e l l a s t he a bi l i t y o f t he s e c ul a r na t i ona l i de nt i t y t o l i m i t e t hni c c onf l i c t I n c ont r a s t t o t he s uc c e s s of pow e r s ha r i ng a r r a nge m e nt s i n I ndi a t he gove r nm e nt of P a ki s t a n ha s r e pe a t e dl y f a i l e d t o m a na ge e t hni c f a c t i ona l i s m a nd e f f e c t i ve l y m e di a t e di s a gr e e m e nt s a m ong t he s t a t e s di ve r s e popul a t i ons T he dom i na t i on of t he C ons t i t ue nt A s s e m bl y a nd M us l i m L e a gue c om m a nd s t r uc t ur e by M uha j i r s a nd t he pa r t y s r e l uc t a nc e t o w e a ke n i t s pos i t i on by e nga gi ng i n e l e c t o r a l c o m pe t i t i on pr e ve nt e d t he r e pr e s e nt a t i on a nd e m pow e r m e nt of ot he r e t hn i c i t i e s dur i ng t he e a r l y t r a ns i t i on pe r i od. A t t e m pt s t o m a i nt a i n t he pol i t i c a l uni t y o f P a ki s t a n t h r ough t he c r e a t i on of a uni t a r y gove r nm e nt a l i e na t e d e t hni c m i nor i t i e s a s w e l l a s t he m a j or i t y popul a t i on of B e nga l i s i n E a s t P a ki s t a n. S ubs e que nt c ons t i t ut i ons a nd gove r nm e nt a l r e f or m s a i m e d a t e s t a bl i s hi ng a f e de r a l s ys t e m a l s o f a i l e d t o uni f y P a ki s t a n a nd m e di a t e gr oup c onf l i c t s E t hni c m i nor i t i e s r e m a i ne d unde r r e pr e s e nt e d i n t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt e c onom i c i nve s t m e nt a nd a l l oc a t i on of r e s our c e s r e m a i ne d une qua l a nd t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt r e t a i ne d oppr e s s i ve e m e r ge nc y pow e r s t ha t unde r m i ne d a n y de gr e e of s t a t e a ut onom y. E ve n w he n pot e nt i a l l y vi a bl e pow e r s ha r i ng a r r a nge m e nt s w e r e pos s i bl e t he e t hn i c f a c t i ona l i s m t ha t c ha r a c t e r i z e d P a ki s t a n pol i t i c s pr e ve nt e d t he i r s uc c e s s T he p r i m a c y of e t hni c i de nt i t y ove r na t i ona l i de nt i t y i n P a ki s t a n c o ns t r a i ne d t he de ve l opm e nt of pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s a l ong e t hni c bounda r i e s T r ul y na t i ona l pa r t i e s t ha t t r a ns c e n de d r e gi ona l a nd e t hni c di vi s i ons di d not e m e r ge i n P a ki s t a n unt i l t h e 1980s a nd t he pr of us i on o f e t hni c a l l y ba s e d pol i t i c a l pa r t i e s pr i o r t o t hi s t i m e i nc r e a s e d gr oup c onf l i c t s w i t hi n t he gove r nm e nt due t o t he l a c k o f e l i t e di s c i pl i ne a nd pr oc e dur e s of d i s put e s e t t l e m e nt

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162 T he e m e r ge nc e of s e c e s s i oni s t m ove m e nt s i n e ve r y P a ki s t a ni s t a t e be s i de s P unj a b a nd t he t e r r i t or i a l d i s i nt e gr a t i on of P a ki s t a n i n 197 1 i l l us t r a t e t he l a c k of e f f e c t i ve r e pr e s e nt a t i ve i ns t i t ut i ons a nd pow e r s ha r i ng a r r a n ge m e nt s i n t he c ou nt r y W i t h t he s e c e s s i on of E a s t P a ki s t a n, t he a l t e r e d e t hn i c c om p os i t i on of P a ki s t a n e xa c e r ba t e d e t hni c f a c t i ona l i s m W i t hou t t he nu m e r i c a l l y s upe r i or bu t pol i t i c a l l y i s ol a t e d B e nga l i s a s a c ount e r w e i ght P unj a b be c a m e t he dom i na nt r e gi o n of P a ki s t a n. U nl i ke I ndi a w hi c h ha s no m a j or i t y e t hni c i t y, t he hi gh popul a t i on o f P un j a bi s i n r e l a t i on t o ot he r e t hni c i t i e s c r e a t e d a pol i t i c a l l y dom i na nt gr oup a nd a n e t hn i c a l l y ba s e d c e nt e r pe r i phe r y s ys t e m T he pe r s i s t e nc e of e t hni c na t i ona l i s m i n P a ki s t a n a l s o r e pr e s e nt s t he f a i l ur e t o c ons t r uc t a vi a bl e na t i ona l i de nt i t y P ol i t i c i a ns t hr oug hout P a ki s t a n s hi s t or y ha ve r e l i e d on a ppe a l s t o a c om m on r e l i gi on a nd oppos i t i on t o I ndi a t o un i t e t he di ve r s e popul a t i ons o f t he s t a t e D i f f e r i ng i nt e r pr e t a t i ons o f I s l a m a nd r e s i s t a nc e t o t he l a ngua ge l a w s a nd e c onom i c s ys t e m i m pos e d f r om t he c e nt e r ha ve unde r m i ne d a t t e m pt s t o c ons t r uc t a uni f yi ng na t i ona l i de nt i t y a nd ha ve ha r de ne d e t hni c a nd r e gi ona l i de nt i t i e s i n P a ki s t a n. T he t e r r i t or i a l c ohe s i on of P a ki s t a n ha s be e n m a i nt a i ne d i ns t e a d by t he m i l i t a r y w hi c h ha s br ut a l l y s uppr e s s e d a ny s e c e s s i oni s t m ove m e nt t ha t ha s e m e r ge d. T he e t hni c c om pos i t i on of t he P a ki s t a ni m i l i t a r y ha s a l s o c ont r i but e d t o t he c onf l i c t ua l gr oup r e l a t i ons i n t he s t a t e F o l l ow i ng t he B r i t i s h ph i l os ophy of r e c r ui t i ng f r om m a r t i a l r a c e s t he m i l i t a r y i n P a ki s t a n i s c om pos e d a l m os t e xc l us i ve l y of P unj a bi s T he e t hno c e nt r i c ba s i s f or m i l i t a r y r e c r ui t m e nt ha s i ns ul a t e d t he m i l i t a r y f r o m t he e t hni c f a c t i ona l i s m t ha t ha s w e a ke ne d ot he r gove r na nc e i ns t i t ut i ons i n P a ki s t a n, a nd a l l ow e d t he a r m e d f or c e s t o vi ol e nt l y c r us h e t hni c na t i ona l i s t m ove m e nt s w i t ho ut t hr e a t e ni ng t he s ol i da r i t y o f t he m i l i t a r y o r ga ni z a t i on.

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163 A f oc us on hi s t or i c a l pr oc e s s e s a nd t he i nc or por a t i on of s oc i a l s ys t e m s i de nt i t y a nd c ul t ur e i nt o t he i ns t i t ut i ona l a na l ys i s of de m oc r a t i c s ys t e m s i n S out h A s i a ha s de m ons t r a t e d t he i m por t a nc e o f c ol oni a l l e ga c i e s pol i t i c a l s oc i e t y, a nd c ul t u r e i n pr oc e s s e s of de m oc r a t i c t r a ns i t i on. D e s pi t e a l l odd s a nd c ont r a r y t o m a ny s c hol a r l y a s s um pt i ons a bout de m oc r a t i z a t i on, I ndi a w a s a bl e t o de s i gn a nd m a i nt a i n a de m oc r a t i c gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e t ha t uni t e d di ve r s e a nd di s pa r a t e popul a t i ons a nd s oc i a l di vi s i ons T he s ur vi va l o f I nd i a n de m oc r a c y i s due i n l a r ge p a r t t o t he c om bi na t i on o f s t a bl e na t i ona l s t r uc t ur e s a nd s t a t e a ut onom y. T hi s s ys t e m ha s a l l ow e d f or t he s ur vi va l of s ub na t i ona l i de nt i t i e s w hi l e s i m ul t a ne ous l y c r e a t i ng i n c e nt i ve s f or pa r t i c i pa t i on i n t he na t i ona l pol i t i c a l p r oc e s s a nd a ve nue s of r e pr e s e nt a t i on i n t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt D e m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n P a ki s t a n w e r e una bl e t o r e s ol ve pol i t i c a l t e ns i ons a nd e t hni c c onf l i c t s a m ong t he s t a t e s popul a t i ons T he e t hni c f a c t i ona l i s m a nd l a c k o f i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d m e t hods of di s put e s e t t l e m e nt ha v e m a de de m oc r a t i c i ns t i t ut i ons i n P a ki s t a n w e a k, uns t a bl e a nd i ne f f i c i e nt ope ni ng t he door t o e pi s ode s of m i l i t a r y i nt e r ve nt i on. T he f a vor a bl e de s i gn o f t he I ndi a n g ove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e a nd t he unde m oc r a t i c na t ur e of t he P a ki s t a ni pol i t i c a l s ys t e m a r e t he r e s ul t of di f f e r i ng e xpe r i e nc e s a nd i de ol ogi e s of I ndi a n H i ndus a nd M us l i m s unde r c ol oni a l r ul e T he i ns t i t ut i ona l c ons t r a i nt s e s t a bl i s he d by t he e a r l y t r a ns i t i on pr oc e s s e s i n bot h s t a t e s i n t ur n, ha ve gui de d t he e vol u t i on of de m oc r a c y i n I n di a a nd P a ki s t a n t o t he pr e s e nt da y.

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