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F5%&G!;*3&,!*7*)(*2)()3#G!&7*?5,*3)5%G!3,*%/?),*3)5%G!*%4!i:*?)((*,#!,)/&jD !!>%:5')%=! *%4!513=5)%=!;*3&,!8,5'!3.&!,553!F5%&!)/!3,*:L&4!*/!1?3*L&!*%4!)/!/)'1(*3&4!2#! :*(:1(*3)%=!*!,553!&Q3,*:3)5%!3&,' !0!c' V O V 4 O K e! c03&4135!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D!! 0 Q !)/!3.&!'*Q)'1'!&Q3,*:3)5%!3&,'!*%4!)3!)/!1/&4!35!:*(:1(*3&!0!*3!*!/5)(!4&?3.! & !)%!3.& !&@1*3)5% 0 )! o![ / & Q!0 /G) IJ&)($,/*C;* D PAGE 43 ! VY ;.&,&![/ & )/!3.&!;*3&,!/3,&//!:5&88):)&%3!*3!*!?*,3):1(*,!4&?3.G!3#?):*((#![/ /35 !85,! /3,&//!3.* 3!)/!()')3)%=!/35'*3*(!5?&%)%=D !! -.&!&Q3,*:3)5%!,*3&!3.&%!*88&:3/! 3,*%/?),*3)5%!3.,51=. T = 1000( Ks i Sx i ) bottom top # !G! F! # ![/!Q!Q IJ&)($,/*C;* E W)3:.)&g/!*??,5*:.!)/!1/&4!35!:*(:1(*3&!/5)(!&7*?5,*3)5%G!213!5%(#!:5%/)4&,!3.&! &%&,=#!()')3&4!?.*/&!*%4!3.&!?.*/&!()')3&4!2#!3.&!3,*%/?5,3!58!;*3&,!35!3.&!/5)(! /1,8*:&D!! $@1*<,5? !13)()F&/!*!81%:3)5%!3.*3!4&?&%4/!5%!3.&!;*3& ,!:5%3&%3!58!3.&!3.)%! 35?!/5)(!(*#&,!;.):.!)'?,57&/!3.&!&/3)'*3)5%!58!&7*?5,*3)5%!1%4&,!*!;)4&!,*%=&!58! :5%4)3)5%/! c03&4135!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D! 05)(!)/!:5'?5/&4!58!*!4&8*1(3!58!KI!:5'?*,3'&%3/!;)3.!*!4&?3.!58! FD!!-.&!/)F&! 58!3.&/&!:5'?*,3'&%3/!)/!*4f1/3&4!2#!3.&!/583;*,&!35!&%:5'?*//!3.&!&%3),&!,553! F5%&!*%4!)/!*4f1/3&4!&Q?5%&%3)*((#!;)3.!4&?3.!/)%:&!&7*?5,*3)5%!4#%*'):/!*3!3.&! /1,8*:&!,&@1),&/!'5,&!4&3*)(!3.*%!&7*?5,*3)5%!8,5'!25335'!(*#&,/D!!M#4,*1():! :.*,*:3 &,)/3):/!*,&!4&8)%&4!2#!3.&!*??,5?,)*3&!/?&:)8)&4!/5)(!.5,)F5%/D!!N*3&,! '57&'&%3!*%4!,553!1?3*L&!*,&!:*(:1(*3&4!2#!&@1*3)5%/!4&8)%&4!2#!3.&!4&?&%4&%3! 7*,)*2(&! G!13)()F)%=!*!4,*)%*=&!:5&88):)&%3! $ D!! $ !)/!4&,)7&4!8,5'![ /*3 !85,!45;%;*,4! ;*3&,!'57&'&%3! cW*&/!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D! -.&!&@1*3)5%/!85,!/5)(!;*3&,!)%:(14&!4,*)%*=&G!/1,8*:&!,1%!588G!*%4!/5)(! &7*?5,*3)5%D!!-.&!&@1*3)5%/!*,&!()/3&4!2&(5; !)%! 85((5;)%=!3.,&&!&@1*3)5%/ D 05)(!;*3&,!)/!*88&:3&4!2#!3.&!&@1*3)5%!85,!4,*)%*=&G!/.5;%!)%! E@1*3)5%!VD! Y D PAGE 44 ! VT IJ&)($,/*C;* F MY).4*)/-*,(2.#4*BOOPQ 01,8*:&!,1% O 588!)/!'54&(&4!2#!C06$!'&3.54!13)()F)%=!:1,7&!%1'2&,/!3.*3!*,&! *4f1/3&4!85,!*%3&:&4 &%3!'5)/31,&!:(*//&/D!!05)(!&7*?5,*3)5%!:5%/)/3/!58!3;5!/3*=&/D!! -.&!8),/3!)/!*%!&%&,=#!()')3)%=!/3*=&D!!-.&!:1'1(*3)7&!&7*?5,*3)5%!41,)%=!3.)/!/3*=&G! ,&8&,,&4!35!*/!WENG!)/!:*(:1(*3&4!2#! E@1* 3)5%!VD! T !8 5,!3.&!/1,8*:&!(*#&,!5%(#G IJ&) ($,/*C;* \ ;.&,&! *),!4,# !)/!/5)(!;*3&,!:5%3&%3!;.&%!3.&!*),!)/!4,#P!*%4!k &G/1,8 !)/!3.&!3.):L%&//!58! 3.&!&7*?5,*3)%=!/1,8*:&!(*#&,! cW*&/!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D -.&!/&:5%4!)/!*!8*(()%=!,*3&!/3*=&G!*/!;*3&,!2&:5'&/!' 5,&!4)88):1(3!35! 3,*%/?5,3!8,5'!(5;&,!/5)(!(*#&,/D!!B1(:.)%=!?,*:3):&/!*88&:3! 3.)/!&@1*3)5%G!213!85,! 1%'1(:.&4!/5)(!3.&!85((5;)%=!&@1*3)5%!VDY!.5(4/D ;.&,&![ :G;&3! )/!3.&!&7*?5,*3)5%!:5&88):)&%3!85,!/*31,*3&4!*%4!1%/.*4&4!/5)(D!! -.&!4&8*1(3!7*(1&!)/!KDKJ! cW*&/!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D![,!)/!&7*?5,*3)5%!,&41:3)5%! :5&88):)&%3G!&@1*(!35!K!41,)%=!3.&!8),/3!/3*=&!58!&7*?5,*3)5%D!N.&%!/3*=&!>!&%4/G![,! *4f1/3/!35 !2&:5'&!(&//!3.*%!5%&!*/!;*3&,!(&*7&/!3.&!35?!(*#&,!58!/5)(!ck &G35? eD!!0)%:&! !!"#$%&'(')*#+',&(-.#/#0'.,)1#2324#566,1#7#/#"338 !"#$%&'()*+!,-+ .!"./"!'&$,+0%$.1-/%1* Details are given for algorithms and calculation procedures used by AquaCrop to model the concepts presented by Steduto et al. (2009). Some emphasis is placed on the soil water balance, because a number of the equations for crop and biomass development and for nal yield are presented by Steduto et al. (2009). To accurately describe the retention, movement, and uptake of water in the soil pro le throughout the growing season, AquaCrop divides the soil pro le into small fractions. e soil pro le is divided into soil compartments (12 by default) with thickness z (0.10 m by default). However, AquaCrop will adjust the size of the compartments to cover the entire root zone. For deep root zones, z is not constant but increases exponentially with depth, so that in ltration, evaporation (E), and transpiration (Tr) from the top soil layers can be described with su # cient detail. e hydraulic characteristics of each compartment are that of the soil horizon to which it belongs. e soil water movement and root water uptake are simulated by a set of equations in terms of the dependent variable, using a dimensionless drainage coe # cient ( # ) as derived from K sat (Raes et al., 2006) for downward water movement in the pro le. -2345367 Drainage occurs when of a compartment is above FC. The amount of water that drains out of compartment i at time step t, is described by an exponential drainage function that takes into account the water content ( i ) and the drainage characteristic of the soil layer (Raes, 1982; Raes et al., 1988, 2006): FC satFC satFC 1 ( ) t 1 i i e e !! !! "! = #!! ! [3] where !" i / t is the decrease during t (m 3 m 3 d 1 ). When # is close to one, a thoroughly wetted soil will drain in 1 or 2 d to FC. Low values of # result in the slow drainage of the soil profile. To simulate internal drainage in a profile composed of various compartments, not necessarily equally wet and may belong to soil layers with different # values, the calculation procedure considers the drainage ability ( !" i / t) of the different compartments. The assumption made is that the total drainage of the compartments above will pass through the compartment below that has a drainage ability greater than or equal to that of the compartment above. By comparing drainage abilities and not water contents, the calculation procedure is independent of the soil layer, to which successive compartments may belong. If a compartment is reached with drainage ability smaller than the one above, the excess is stored in that compartment, thereby increasing its water content and its drainage ability. The drainage function used in AquaCrop mimics very well the infiltration and internal drainage observed in the field (Garcia Cardenas, 2003; Raes et al., 2006; Descheemaeker, 2006; Geerts et al., 2008). *8293:7+%85;$99+35<+&5 +=>23>4?5 Surface run-o $ is simulated by the curve number method (USDA, 1964; Rallison, 1980; Steenhuis et al., 1995). e speci ed Curve Number (CN II ) is adjusted for the simulated wetness of the top soil layer. Relationships derived from Smedema and Rycro % (1983), presenting corresponding CN values for antecedent moisture class (AMC) I (dry), II, and III (wet), are used. A soil depth of 0.3 m is considered by default when calculating the AMC. For simplicity, irrigation is assumed to be fully controlled; hence, the runo $ subroutine (for rainfall) is bypassed for irrigation water in ltration and tailwater is assumed to be zero. If surface runo $ from the eld is important when irrigating, the above assumption requires that irrigation be speci ed as a net application amount. e maximum amount that can in ltrate the soil, either as rainfall or irrigation, is however limited by K sat of the topsoil layer. A % er in ltrating into the soil, the water is stored in successive compartments from the top downward, governed by the limit imposed by the drainage ability ( !" i / t) of the di $ erent compartments. *?4=+1@3A?23>4?5 Evaporation from soil takes place in two stages (Philip, 1957; Ritchie, 1972): an energy limiting stage (Stage I) and a falling rate stage (Stage II), when water transport to the surface from layers below is limiting. In AquaCrop, the cumulative Stage I evaporation (REW) is estimated as: REW = 1000 & ( FC air dry ) & Z e, surf [4] where air dry is soil water content (m 3 m 3 ) when air dry, and Z e,surf the thickness (m) of the evaporating surface layer. By assuming air dry to be half of PWP and 40 mm for Z e,surf an agreement was found between REW and the cumulative evaporation for the energy limiting stage (Stage I evaporation), that is, the U value of Ritchie (1972). As long as readily evaporable water remains in the surface layer, E is in the energy limiting stage, and the rate is the maximum rate (E x ). When all the REW is gone from the surface layer, E switches to the falling rate stage (Stage II) and water ( ows from the soil layer below (Z e,top ) to the surface layer. For bare soil, evaporation is described by the following equation, for both stages: E = Kr & E x = Kr & Kc e, wet & ET o [5] where Kc e, wet is the evaporation coe # cient for fully wet and unshaded soil surface with a default value of 1.10 (Allen et al., 1998), and Kr ( ) 1) is the dimensionless evaporation reduction coe # cient, and is 1 during Stage I evaporation. As Stage I ends and Stage II begins, Kr decreases below 1 as water is depleted from Z e,top (Fig. 4). To account for the sharp decline in hydraulic conductivity with decreasing soil water content, an exponential equation is used to relate Kr to relative water content of the soil layer (W rel ): rel fW f exp 1 0 Kr = 1 exp 1 K K $ %% [6] !!"#$%&'(')*#+',&(-.#/#0'.,)1#2324#566,1#7#/#"338 !"#$%&'()*+!,-+ .!"./"!'&$,+0%$.1-/%1* Details are given for algorithms and calculation procedures used by AquaCrop to model the concepts presented by Steduto et al. (2009). Some emphasis is placed on the soil water balance, because a number of the equations for crop and biomass development and for nal yield are presented by Steduto et al. (2009). To accurately describe the retention, movement, and uptake of water in the soil pro le throughout the growing season, AquaCrop divides the soil pro le into small fractions. e soil pro le is divided into soil compartments (12 by default) with thickness z (0.10 m by default). However, AquaCrop will adjust the size of the compartments to cover the entire root zone. For deep root zones, z is not constant but increases exponentially with depth, so that in ltration, evaporation (E), and transpiration (Tr) from the top soil layers can be described with su # cient detail. e hydraulic characteristics of each compartment are that of the soil horizon to which it belongs. e soil water movement and root water uptake are simulated by a set of equations in terms of the dependent variable, using a dimensionless drainage coe # cient ( # ) as derived from K sat (Raes et al., 2006) for downward water movement in the pro le. -2345367 Drainage occurs when of a compartment is above FC. The amount of water that drains out of compartment i at time step t, is described by an exponential drainage function that takes into account the water content ( i ) and the drainage characteristic of the soil layer (Raes, 1982; Raes et al., 1988, 2006): FC satFC satFC 1 ( ) t 1 i i e e !! !! "! = #!! ! [3] where !" i / t is the decrease during t (m 3 m 3 d 1 ). When # is close to one, a thoroughly wetted soil will drain in 1 or 2 d to FC. Low values of # result in the slow drainage of the soil profile. To simulate internal drainage in a profile composed of various compartments, not necessarily equally wet and may belong to soil layers with different # values, the calculation procedure considers the drainage ability ( !" i / t) of the different compartments. The assumption made is that the total drainage of the compartments above will pass through the compartment below that has a drainage ability greater than or equal to that of the compartment above. By comparing drainage abilities and not water contents, the calculation procedure is independent of the soil layer, to which successive compartments may belong. If a compartment is reached with drainage ability smaller than the one above, the excess is stored in that compartment, thereby increasing its water content and its drainage ability. The drainage function used in AquaCrop mimics very well the infiltration and internal drainage observed in the field (Garcia Cardenas, 2003; Raes et al., 2006; Descheemaeker, 2006; Geerts et al., 2008). *8293:7+%85;$99+35<+&5 +=>23>4?5 Surface run-o $ is simulated by the curve number method (USDA, 1964; Rallison, 1980; Steenhuis et al., 1995). e speci ed Curve Number (CN II ) is adjusted for the simulated wetness of the top soil layer. Relationships derived from Smedema and Rycro % (1983), presenting corresponding CN values for antecedent moisture class (AMC) I (dry), II, and III (wet), are used. A soil depth of 0.3 m is considered by default when calculating the AMC. For simplicity, irrigation is assumed to be fully controlled; hence, the runo $ subroutine (for rainfall) is bypassed for irrigation water in ltration and tailwater is assumed to be zero. If surface runo $ from the eld is important when irrigating, the above assumption requires that irrigation be speci ed as a net application amount. e maximum amount that can in ltrate the soil, either as rainfall or irrigation, is however limited by K sat of the topsoil layer. A % er in ltrating into the soil, the water is stored in successive compartments from the top downward, governed by the limit imposed by the drainage ability ( !" i / t) of the di $ erent compartments. *?4=+1@3A?23>4?5 Evaporation from soil takes place in two stages (Philip, 1957; Ritchie, 1972): an energy limiting stage (Stage I) and a falling rate stage (Stage II), when water transport to the surface from layers below is limiting. In AquaCrop, the cumulative Stage I evaporation (REW) is estimated as: REW = 1000 & ( FC air dry ) & Z e, surf [4] where air dry is soil water content (m 3 m 3 ) when air dry, and Z e,surf the thickness (m) of the evaporating surface layer. By assuming air dry to be half of PWP and 40 mm for Z e,surf an agreement was found between REW and the cumulative evaporation for the energy limiting stage (Stage I evaporation), that is, the U value of Ritchie (1972). As long as readily evaporable water remains in the surface layer, E is in the energy limiting stage, and the rate is the maximum rate (E x ). When all the REW is gone from the surface layer, E switches to the falling rate stage (Stage II) and water ( ows from the soil layer below (Z e,top ) to the surface layer. For bare soil, evaporation is described by the following equation, for both stages: E = Kr & E x = Kr & Kc e, wet & ET o [5] where Kc e, wet is the evaporation coe # cient for fully wet and unshaded soil surface with a default value of 1.10 (Allen et al., 1998), and Kr ( ) 1) is the dimensionless evaporation reduction coe # cient, and is 1 during Stage I evaporation. As Stage I ends and Stage II begins, Kr decreases below 1 as water is depleted from Z e,top (Fig. 4). To account for the sharp decline in hydraulic conductivity with decreasing soil water content, an exponential equation is used to relate Kr to relative water content of the soil layer (W rel ): rel fW f exp 1 0 Kr = 1 exp 1 K K $ %% [6] !!"#$%&'(')*#+',&(-.#/#0'.,)1#2324#566,1#7#/#"338 !"#$%&'()*+!,-+ .!"./"!'&$,+0%$.1-/%1* Details are given for algorithms and calculation procedures used by AquaCrop to model the concepts presented by Steduto et al. (2009). Some emphasis is placed on the soil water balance, because a number of the equations for crop and biomass development and for nal yield are presented by Steduto et al. (2009). To accurately describe the retention, movement, and uptake of water in the soil pro le throughout the growing season, AquaCrop divides the soil pro le into small fractions. e soil pro le is divided into soil compartments (12 by default) with thickness z (0.10 m by default). However, AquaCrop will adjust the size of the compartments to cover the entire root zone. For deep root zones, z is not constant but increases exponentially with depth, so that in ltration, evaporation (E), and transpiration (Tr) from the top soil layers can be described with su # cient detail. e hydraulic characteristics of each compartment are that of the soil horizon to which it belongs. e soil water movement and root water uptake are simulated by a set of equations in terms of the dependent variable, using a dimensionless drainage coe # cient ( # ) as derived from K sat (Raes et al., 2006) for downward water movement in the pro le. -2345367 Drainage occurs when of a compartment is above FC. The amount of water that drains out of compartment i at time step t, is described by an exponential drainage function that takes into account the water content ( i ) and the drainage characteristic of the soil layer (Raes, 1982; Raes et al., 1988, 2006): FC satFC satFC 1 ( ) t 1 i i e e !! !! "! = #!! ! [3] where !" i / t is the decrease during t (m 3 m 3 d 1 ). When # is close to one, a thoroughly wetted soil will drain in 1 or 2 d to FC. Low values of # result in the slow drainage of the soil profile. To simulate internal drainage in a profile composed of various compartments, not necessarily equally wet and may belong to soil layers with different # values, the calculation procedure considers the drainage ability ( !" i / t) of the different compartments. The assumption made is that the total drainage of the compartments above will pass through the compartment below that has a drainage ability greater than or equal to that of the compartment above. By comparing drainage abilities and not water contents, the calculation procedure is independent of the soil layer, to which successive compartments may belong. If a compartment is reached with drainage ability smaller than the one above, the excess is stored in that compartment, thereby increasing its water content and its drainage ability. The drainage function used in AquaCrop mimics very well the infiltration and internal drainage observed in the field (Garcia Cardenas, 2003; Raes et al., 2006; Descheemaeker, 2006; Geerts et al., 2008). *8293:7+%85;$99+35<+&5 +=>23>4?5 Surface run-o $ is simulated by the curve number method (USDA, 1964; Rallison, 1980; Steenhuis et al., 1995). e speci ed Curve Number (CN II ) is adjusted for the simulated wetness of the top soil layer. Relationships derived from Smedema and Rycro % (1983), presenting corresponding CN values for antecedent moisture class (AMC) I (dry), II, and III (wet), are used. A soil depth of 0.3 m is considered by default when calculating the AMC. For simplicity, irrigation is assumed to be fully controlled; hence, the runo $ subroutine (for rainfall) is bypassed for irrigation water in ltration and tailwater is assumed to be zero. If surface runo $ from the eld is important when irrigating, the above assumption requires that irrigation be speci ed as a net application amount. e maximum amount that can in ltrate the soil, either as rainfall or irrigation, is however limited by K sat of the topsoil layer. A % er in ltrating into the soil, the water is stored in successive compartments from the top downward, governed by the limit imposed by the drainage ability ( !" i / t) of the di $ erent compartments. *?4=+1@3A?23>4?5 Evaporation from soil takes place in two stages (Philip, 1957; Ritchie, 1972): an energy limiting stage (Stage I) and a falling rate stage (Stage II), when water transport to the surface from layers below is limiting. In AquaCrop, the cumulative Stage I evaporation (REW) is estimated as: REW = 1000 & ( FC air dry ) & Z e, surf [4] where air dry is soil water content (m 3 m 3 ) when air dry, and Z e,surf the thickness (m) of the evaporating surface layer. By assuming air dry to be half of PWP and 40 mm for Z e,surf an agreement was found between REW and the cumulative evaporation for the energy limiting stage (Stage I evaporation), that is, the U value of Ritchie (1972). As long as readily evaporable water remains in the surface layer, E is in the energy limiting stage, and the rate is the maximum rate (E x ). When all the REW is gone from the surface layer, E switches to the falling rate stage (Stage II) and water ( ows from the soil layer below (Z e,top ) to the surface layer. For bare soil, evaporation is described by the following equation, for both stages: E = Kr & E x = Kr & Kc e, wet & ET o [5] where Kc e, wet is the evaporation coe # cient for fully wet and unshaded soil surface with a default value of 1.10 (Allen et al., 1998), and Kr ( ) 1) is the dimensionless evaporation reduction coe # cient, and is 1 during Stage I evaporation. As Stage I ends and Stage II begins, Kr decreases below 1 as water is depleted from Z e,top (Fig. 4). To account for the sharp decline in hydraulic conductivity with decreasing soil water content, an exponential equation is used to relate Kr to relative water content of the soil layer (W rel ): rel fW f exp 1 0 Kr = 1 exp 1 K K $ %% [6] IJ&)($,/*C;* ] PAGE 45 ! V^ .#4,*1():!:5%41:3)7)3#!,*?)4(#!4&:()%&/!;.&%!;*3&,!)/!,&'57&4!8,5'!3.&!/5)(G![,!)/! ,&(*3&4!&Q?5%&%3)*((#!35!3.&!,&(*3)7&!;*3&,!:5%3&%3!58!3.&!/5)(!(*#&,!cN ,&( e!2#! &@1*3)5%a IJ&)($,/*C;* P MY).4*)/-*,(2.#4*BOOPQ -.&!,*3&!58!/3*=&!5%&!)/!*88&:3&4!;.&%!*!81((!:*%5?#!8)%)/.&/!4&7&(5?)%=D!!-.)/!,*3&!)/! :.*%=&4!2#!E Q !o!cK O < PAGE 46 ! V] $@1*<,5? g/!7*,)*2(&!5?3)5%/!85,!;*3& ,!'*%*=&'&%3!)%:(14&!,*)%8&4!:,5?/G! *%4!/:.&41(&4!),,)=*3)5%!/1:.!*/!4,)?G!/?,)%L(&,G!5,!/1,8*:&!),,)=*3)5%! c03&4135!*%4! 53.&,/!IJJ]e D!>,,)=*3)5%!)%?13/!13)()F&!*??():*3)5%!3)'&!*%4!4&?3.D!! $@1*<,5? ?,541:&/!) ,,)=*3)5%!/:.&41(&/!1/)%=!3.&!/*'&!/583;*,&!*/!W0>0A PAGE 47 ! XJ 95,'*()F*3)5%!58!NU!)/!85:1/&4!*,51%4!EJ !*%4! PAGE 48 ! XK ;.&,&!< PAGE 49 ! XI &Q?*%/)5%G!*%=(&G!*%4!4)/3,)213)5%!)%35!5%&!81%:3)5%D!! $@1*<,5? !*((5;/!1/&,/!35!&%3&,! 7*(1&/!58!:*%5? #!:57&,!*/!'&*/1,&4!5,!&/3)'*3&4!2#!*&,)*(!?.535/!5,!7)/1*(! '&*/1,&'&%3/! c03&4135!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D % <*%5?#!:57&,!*88&:3/!3,*%/?),*3)5%P!3.&,&85,&G!*88&:3/!2)5'*//!?,541:&4! 3.,51=.!NU! c03&4135!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D ** <*%5?#!:57&,!&@1*3)5%/!,&@1),&!?(*%3! 4&%/)3#G!3.&!:*%5?#!:57&,!*3!]Jb!&'&,=&%:&G!'*Q)'1'!:*%5?#!:57&,!c<< Q e!85,!3.&! ?*,3):1(*,!?(*%3!4&%/)3#!1%4&,!?,)'&!:5%4)3)5%/G!*!:*%5?#!=,5;3.!:5&88):)&%3!c<_ PAGE 50 ! XV -.)/!&@1*3)5%!:5%/)4&,/!7*,)*2(&!?(*%3!4&%/)3)&/D!!-.)/!) /!5%(#!1/&4!*83&,! /&&4()%=/!2&:5'&!*1353,5?.):D!!"&85,&!/&&4()%=/!2&=)%!35!)%4&?&%4&%3(#! ?.535/#%3.&/)F&G!3.&!=,5;3.!)/!5%(#!*88&:3&4!2#!3.&!*7*)(*2)()3#!58!3.&!/&&4!/3*,:.! ,&/&,7&D!!<< J !)/!3.&!:*%5?#!:57&,!*3!]Jb!/&&4()%=!&'&,=&%:&G!*!4&:)/)5%!3.*3! :5%/)4 &,&4!3.&!.&3&,5=&%&)3#!58!=&,')%*3)5%D!!<*%5?#!/)F&!?&,!/&&4()%=!:51(4!2&! 21)(3!)%35!3.&!'54&(!85,!'*f5,!:,5?/G!/5!3.*3!<< J !:*%!2&!:*(:1(*3&4!1/)%=!*!1/&, O /?&:)8)&4!?(*%3!4&%/)3#! c03&4135!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D!!-. )/!:5%/3*%3!,&(*3)7&!=,5;3.! :.*%=&/!;.&%!:*%5?#!:57&,!2&:5'&/!4&%/&!&%51=.!35!2&=)%!/.*4)%=!%&)=.25,)%=! ?(*%3/D!!-.&!,&(*3)5%/.)?!2&3;&&%!:*%5?#!:57&,!*%4!?(*%3!=,5;3.!:&*/&/!2&)%=! ?,5?5,3)5%*(G!*%4!*,&!,&(*3&4!2#!&Q?5%&%3)*(!4&:*#! c03&4135!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e G! /.5;%!)%! E@1*3)5%!VD! KX D < PAGE 51 ! 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XZ $@1*<,5? !13)()F&/!3.&![/!81%:3)5%/!85,!(&*8!=,5;3.!*%4!/35'*3*(!5?&%)%=!35! ,&=1(*3&!.*,7&/3!)%4&Q!cM>eG!2&:*1/&!(&*8!=,5;3.!*%4!/35'*3*!*,&!'1:.!'5,&! /&%/)3)7&!3.*%!,553!=,5;3.!5,!,&?,541:3)7&!5,=*%/! c03&4135!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D!! N)3.513!/3,&//G!M>!)%:,&*/&/!() %&*,(#!;)3.!i*83&,!*!(*=!?.*/&jD!!$ 1/&, O *4f1/3&4! ,&8&,&%:&!M> J !*:3/!*/!*%!&%4?5)%3!85,!3.)/!()%&*,!)%:,&*/&D!! M>!)/!*88&:3&4!2#!;*3&,!/3,&//!)%!8)7&!;*#/! c03&4135!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D!!-.&! 8),/3!851,!*,&!1/&4!85,!3#?):*(!/3,&//!(&7&(/G!*%4!3.&!8)83.!)/!*??()&4!;.&%!?5(()%*3)5%! 8*)(/!41&!35!/&7&,&!4,51=.3D!!-.&!8),/3!851,!&88&:3/!*,&!,&41:3)5%!58!(&*8!=,5;3.G! ,&41:3)5%!)%!/35'*3*( !5?&%)%=G!4)')%)/.)%=!=,&&%!:*%5?#!41&!35!/&%&/:&%:&G!*%4!*! ,&41:3)5%!)%!2)5'*//!41&!35!/3,&//&/!5::1,,)%=!2&85,&!*%3.&/)/! c03&4135!*%4!53.&,/! 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[/ /35 G!3.&!/3,&//!:5&88):)&%3!85,!/35'*3*D!!<5&88):)&%3! = !*4f1/3/![/ /35 G!% &=*3)7&(#! PAGE 53 ! XY )'?*:3)%=!M>!*/! = !4&:,&*/&/! cW*&/!*%4!53.&,/!IJJ]e D!!>8!?5(()%*3)5%!)/!)%.)2)3&4G![/ ?5( )/!1/&4D!!U5(()%*3)5%!8*)(1,&!5::1,/!*3!*!?*,3):1(*,!3.,&/.5(4!58!3.&!8,*:3)5%!c?e!58!353*(! *7*)(*2(&!;*3&,! cW*&/!*%4!53.&,/! IJJ]e D M&%=!&3!*(D! cIJJ]e !851%4!3.*3! $@1*<,5? !;*/!/)'1(*3&4!#)&(4!;&((!1%4&,!(5;! /3,&//G!*%4!&7&%!.)=.!E-!/:&%*,)5/D!!-.&!/)'1(*3)5%/!;&,&!(&//!*::1,*3&!*/!;*3&,! /3,&//!2&:*'&!/&7&,&G!5,!5::1,,&4!*83&,! 3.&!5%/&3!58!/&%&/:&%:&D!!>%!3.,&&!4)88&,&%3! (5:*3)5%/G!2)5'*//!;*/!57&, O ?,&4):3&4!;.&%!;*3&,!/3,&//!;*/!/&7&,&! cM&%=!*%4! 53.&,/!IJJ]e D PAGE 54 ! XT ?2)@(.#* D LNN!=* ?IYIN 9 +)$6. *+,-.' PAGE 55 ! X^ '54&(/!/)'1(*3&/!8)7&!4&7&(5?'&%3!/3*=&/!58!:5,%a!&'&,=&%:&!3.,51=.!f17&%)(&! / 3*=&G!f17&%)(&!35!3*//&(!)%)3)*3)5%G!3*//&(!)%)3)*3)5%!35!/)(L)%=G!/)(L)%=!35!&88&:3)7&! =,*)%8)(()%=G!*%4!&88&:3)7&!=,*)%8)(()%=!35!'*31,)3#D!-.&!(&%=3.!58!&*:.!/3*=&!)/! 4&?&%4&%3!5%!/?&:)8):!7*,)*2(&/!;)3.)%!3.&!'54&(D!! -.&!/3*=&!3.*3!&%:5'?*//&/!/5;)%=! 35!=&,')%*3)5%!)/!4&?&%4&%3!5%!*4 &@1*3&! /5)(!;*3&,!:5%3&%3 !*%4!;)((!,&/1(3!)%!353*(!:,5?!8*)(1,&!)8!=&,')%*3)5%!45&/!%53!5::1,! *83&,!IK!4*#/D !.&!'54&(!2&=)%/!)%)3)*(!:*(:1(*3)5%/!58!,553!4&?3. !8 5,!3.&!/3*=&! 2&3;&&%!=&,')%*3)5%!*%4!&'&,=&%:& D!E'&,=&%:&!.*? ?&%/!;.&%!3.&!:1'1(*3)7&! =,5;)%=!4*#/!,&*:.&/!*!:&,3*)%!?*,*'&3&,!4&8)%&4!2#!3.&!4&?3.!58!/5;)%=!* %4!3.&! %1'2&,!58!=,5;)%=!4&=,&& O 4*#/D!!$83&,!&'&,=&%:&G!3.&!?(*%3/!?,5:&&4!35!3.&!&%4!58! 3.&!f17&%)(&!/3*=&D!-.&!/3*=&!)/!:5%3,5((&4!2#!3.& !1/&, O 4&/)=%*3&4!UK :5&88):)&%3 !3.*3 )/!/?&:)8):!35!)%4)7)41*(!:1(3)7*,/D!!-.&!4&7&(5?'&%3!41,)%=!3.)/!/3*=&!)/!*!8 1%:3)5%!58! :,5;%!3&'?&,*31,&D!!-.& !2*/&!3&'?&,*31,&!85,!'*)F&!4&7&(5?'&%3 !)/!^!q< c`*%=!*%4! 53.&,/!IJJ^e D!!$3!3.&!&%4!58!3.&!f17&%)(&!/3*=&G!3.&!:5,%!2&:5'&/!*1353,5?.):D!-.1/G! 3.&!%&Q3!/3*=&G!;.):.!:5%3)%1&/!35!3*//&(!)%)3)*3)5%G!)/!4&?&%4&%3!5%!?.535?&,)54D!! -.&!(&%=3.!58!3.)/!/3*=&! ;)((!4&3&,')%&!3.&!(&*8!%1'2&,! *%4 G !3.&,&85,& G !*8 8&:3/!3.&! 5%/&3!58!*%3.&/)/D!! -.&!%&Q3!/3*=&!&%:5'?*//&/!3.&!?&,)54!8,5'!3*//&(!)%)3)*3)5%!35!/)(L)%=D!!$83&,! 3.)/!/3*=&G!/)(L)%=!?,5:&&4/!35!3.&!5%/&3!58!=,*)%!8)(()%=D! 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ZJ 4*3&/!)%:,&*/&G!:5,,&(*3&/ !;)3.!)%:,&*/)%=!UK!*%4!U ID!!`)&(4!?53&%3)*(!)%:,&*/&/!1%3)( KKY O 4*#!()8&!:#:(&!)%!+RG!5,!KJ^ O 4*#!()8&!:#:(&!)%!>5;*! c"553&!*%4!53.&,/! IJJKe D!!$/! UK!*%4!UI!)%:,&*/&G!R$>!*%4!7&=&3*3)5%!?,)5,!35!=,*)%!8)(()%=!*,&!5?3)')F&4D!!UZ! ,&?,&/&%3/!3.&!41,*3)5%!,&@1),&4!85,!=,*)%!8)(()%=! '&*/1,&4!)% !=,5;)%=!4&=,&& O 4*#/D!! >%:,&*/&/!)%!UZ!.*7&!2&&%!:5,,&(*3&4!;)3.!#)&(4!)%:,&*/&!1?!35!KI O KVb!?&,!KJ b! :5&88):)&%3!)%:,&*/&! c"553&!*%4!53.&,/!IJJKe D!!_I!)/!3.&!:5&88):)&%3!85,!3.&!'*Q)'1'! %1'2&,!58!L&,%&(/!?&,!?(*%3D!D!!>8!_I!)/!4&:,&*/&4!8,5'!i3#?):*(!7*(1&!58!]J^!L&,%&(/! ?&,!?(*%3j!#)&(4!4&:,&*/&/!Y O Tb!?&,!KJb!4&:,&*/&!)%!:5&88):)&%3! c"553&!* %4!53.&,/! 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ZK H$"&#.*D;* A *L$)"#)5*,3*(2.*%,5@,/./(4`*5,-&'.4`*)/-*$/(.#)%($,/4*$/*LNN!=*:*C;E* M_,/.4*)/-*,(2.#4* BOOCQ B54 1(&/!*,&!4)7)4&4!2#!4)/:)?()%&!)%!5,4&,!35!:,&*3&!:(&*,!*%4!/)'?(&! )%3&,8*:&/!3.*3!'*#!2&!&Q:.*%=&4! cH5%&/!*%4!53.&,/!IJJVe D!-.&!'541(&/!*,&! ,&8&,,&4!35!*%4!&Q?(*)%&4!)%!3.&!85((5;)%=!3*2(&!8,5'! cH5%&/!*%4!53.&,/!IJJVe D! 600$!)/!:5'?5/&4!58!*!/5)(!'541(&G!*!:,5?!3&'?(*3&!3.*3!*((5;/!85,!*!7*,)&3 #!58!:,5?! 3#?&/!3.,51=.!3.&!4&8)%)3)5%!58!*!/?&:)&/!)%?13!8)(&G!*!;&*3.&,!'541(&G!*%4!*!'541(&! 85,!()=.3!)%3&,:&?3)5%!*%4!;*3&,!:5'?&3)3)5%!;)3.)%!3.&!?(*%3!:5''1%)3#! cH5%&/!*%4! 53.&,/!IJJVe D !-.&!'541(&/!*%4!/12'541(&/!*,&!()/3&4!)%! -*2(&!XD! I !6&/:,)?3)5%!58! 3.&!'541(&/!)%!600$-!7!VDZ approachthatwasusedwasfraughtwithmany problemsregardingprogramming,compatibility ofsoilmodels,andpotentialbugsindifferentsets ofcode.AttheheartoftheDSSATre v isionsisa newcroppingsystemmodel(DSSAT / CSM), whichincorporatesallcropsasmodulesusinga singlesoilmodel.Thiswasaccomplishedby completelyredesigningthecropmodels,starting withCROPGRO,usingamodularstructure ( Jonesetal.,2001 ).Thisdesignwasmoti v atedto alargeextentbythemodularfeaturesofAPSIM ( McCownetal.,1996 ),butitusestheapproach de v elopedby v an Kraalingen(1990,1991,1995), Kraalingenetal.(2003) intheFSE/FSTsoftware forprogrammingthebeha v iorofeachmodule. ThenewCSMnowcontainsmodelsof16crops deri v edfromtheoldDSSATCROPGROand CERESmodels(maize,wheat,soybean,peanut, rice,potato,tomato,drybean,sorghum,millet, pasture,chickpea,cowpea, v el v etbean,brachiaria grass,andfababean). TheaimsoftheDSSAT / CSMare(1)to simulatemonocropproductionsystemsconsideringweather,genetics,soilwater,soilcarbonand nitrogen,andmanagementinsingleormultiple seasonsandincroprotationsatanylocation whereminimuminputsarepro v ided,(2)to pro v ideaplatformforeasilyincorporatingmodulesforotherabioticandbioticfactors,suchas soilphosphorusandplantdiseases,(3)topro v ide aplatformthatallowsonetoeasilycompare alternati v emodulesforspecificcomponentsto facilitatemodelimpro v ement,e v olution,anddocumentation,and(4)topro v ideacapabilityfor easilyintroducingtheCSMintoadditionalapplicationprogramsinamodular,welldocumented way.Thepurposeofthispaperistodescribethe DSSAT / CSM,itsdesign,datarequirements, e v aluationandapplications. 2.OveralldescriptionoftheDSSATcropping systemmodel TheDSSAT / CSMsimulatesgrowth,de v elopmentandyieldofacropgrowingonauniform areaoflandunderprescribedorsimulatedmanagementaswellasthechangesinsoilwater, carbon,andnitrogenthattakeplaceunderthe croppingsystemo v ertime.TheDSSAT / CSMis Fig.1.Diagramofdatabase,application,andsupportsoftwarecomponentsandtheirusewithcropmodelsforapplicationsinDSSAT v 3.5. 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