Striving for Participation

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S tr i vi n g for P a r ti c i p at i on : A n A na l ys i s of C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt i n B ot s w a na A T he s i s B y C a t he r i ne G ow a n S ubm i t t e d t o t he D i vi s i on of S oc i a l S c i e nc e s N e w C ol l e ge of F l or i da I n P a r t i a l F ul f i l l m e nt o f t he R e qui r e m e nt s f or t he D e gr e e B a c he l or of A r t s U nde r t he S pons or s hi p of D r B a r ba r a H i c k s S a r a s ot a F l or i da M a y 2009

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TA B LE O F C O N T EN TS A C R O N Y M S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i i A B S T R A C T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i i i D E D I C A T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i v M A P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v I N T R O D U C T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi C H A P T E R 1 T he or e t i c a l C ont r i but i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 C H A P T E R 2 C om m uni t y B a s e d C ons e r va t i on i n C ont e xt . . . . . . . . . 15 C H A P T E R 3 A na l ys i s of B ot s w a na s C B N R M P r ogr a m . . . . . . . . . 31 C H A P T E R 4 C om pa r a t i ve S t udy of Z i m ba bw e a nd N a m i bi a . . . . . . . . 53 C H A P T E R 5 C onc l udi ng I ns i ght s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 B I B L I O G R A P H Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 A P P E N D I X L i s t of C B N R M P r oj e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

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i i A c r on y ms B D P B ot s w a na D e m oc r a t i c P a r t y B O C O B O N E T B ot s w a na C om m uni t y B a s e d O r ga ni z a t i on N e t w or k B T B B ot s w a na T our i s m B oa r d C A M P F I R E C om m una l A r e a s M a na ge m e nt P r ogr a m f o r I ndi ge nous R e s our c e s C B O C om m uni t y B a s e d O r ga ni z a t i on C B N R M C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt C G G C ons e r va nc y G a m e G ua r ds C H A C ont r ol l e d H unt i ng A r e a C R M C om m uni t y R e s our c e M oni t or D E A B ot s w a na s D e pa r t m e nt of E nvi r onm e nt a l A f f a i r s D WN P B ot s w a na s D e pa r t m e nt of W i l dl i f e a nd N a t i ona l P a r ks E I A E nvi r onm e nt a l I m pa c t A s s e s s m e nt I U C N I nt e r na t i ona l U ni on f or C ons e r va t i on of N a t ur e JV P J oi nt V e nt ur e P a r t ne r s hi p L U M P L a nd U s e M a na ge m e nt P l a n M E T N a m i bi a s M i ni s t r y of E nvi r onm e nt a nd T our i s m M O M S M a na ge m e nt O r i e nt e d M oni t or i ng S ys t e m N A S C O N a m i bi a n A s s oc i a t i on of C B N R M S uppor t O r ga ni z a t i ons N G O N on G ove r nm e nt a l O r ga ni z a t i on P R A P a r t i c i pa t or y R ur a l A ppr a i s a l R A D P R e m ot e A r e a D e ve l opm e nt P r ogr a m R A L E R e pr e s e nt a t i ve a nd A c c ount a bl e L e ga l A ut hor i t y R D C R ur a l D i s t r i c t C ounc i l T A C T e c hni c a l A dvi s or y C om m i t t e e U S A I D U ni t e d S t a t e s A ge nc y f or I nt e r na t i ona l D e ve l opm e nt WM A W i l dl i f e M a na ge m e nt A r e a

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i i i A BS R A C T S T R I V I N G F O R P A R T I C I P A T I O N : A N A L Y S I S O F C O M M U N I T Y B A S E D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E M A N A G E M E N T I N B O T S W A N A C a t he r i ne G ow a n N e w C ol l e ge of F l o r i da 2009 C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt ( C B N R M ) pr ogr a m s a r e a t t he f or e f r ont of c ons e r va t i on a nd de ve l opm e nt i de ol og y. F o unde d on t he p r e m i s e t ha t e c onom i c i nc e nt i ve s c a n pr ovi de r e a s ons f or r ur a l pe opl e i n t he de ve l opi ng w or l d t o c ons e r ve w i l dl i f e a nd ot he r na t ur a l r e s our c e s C B N R M pr ogr a m s ha ve be e n i m pl e m e nt e d a l l a c r os s s out he r n A f r i c a f or t he pa s t t w o de c a de s I n a ddi t i on t o c ons e r vi ng w i l dl i f e t he s e dua l c ons e r va t i on a nd de ve l opm e nt pr og r a m s a r e m e a nt t o e m pow e r r u r a l pe opl e by e nc our a gi ng t he m t o m a na ge a nd pa r t i c i pa t e i n t he de c i s i on m a ki ng pr oc e s s D e s pi t e t he pr om i s e of C B N R M i m pl e m e nt a t i on h a s not gone s m oot hl y i n B ot s w a na ( or m os t ot he r c ount r i e s i n w hi c h i s ha s be e n t r i e d) I s s ue s of non e nga ge m e nt m a r gi na l i z a t i on of s e gm e nt s of s oc i e t y, a nd l a c k of t r a i ni ng a nd t e c hni c a l c a pa c i t y a r e hi nde r i ng t he de ve l opm e nt a nd us e f ul ne s s of t he p r ogr a m T hi s s t udy e xa m i ne s t he obs t a c l e s t o C B N R M i n B ot s w a na t hr ough a f r a m e w or k of pol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m de s i gn pr i nc i pl e s t ha t s e pa r a t e s t he i s s ue s i nt o f i ve di m e ns i ons : i nf or m a t i on, c om m uni c a t i on, s ym m e t r y a nd m oni t or i ng a nd e n f or c e m e nt P a r t i c ul a r e m pha s i s i s pl a c e d o n i ns t i t ut i ona l s t r uc t u r e s t ha t a r e bl oc ki ng pa r t i c i pa t i on i n t he pr og r a m T hi s s t udy a l s o c om pa r e s t he pa r t i c i pa t i on m e c ha n i s m s i n B ot s w a na t o t hos e of Z i m ba bw e a nd N a m i bi a t o de t e r m i ne w he t he r t he e f f or t s a nd l e s s ons f r om ot he r

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i v pr ogr a m s c a n be t r a ns f e r r e d t o B ot s w a na s ve r s i on of C B N R M I t a ppe a r s t ha t B ot s w a na i s f ol l ow i ng a s i m i l a r t r e nd t o Z i m ba bw e a nd i nc r e a s i ng c e nt r a l i z a t i on of t he pr ogr a m r a t he r t ha n t he m or e s uc c e s s f ul N a m i bi a n m ode l of c ons i de r a bl e c om m uni t y c ont r o l D r B a r ba r a H i c ks ________________________________ D i vi s i on of P ol i t i c a l S c i e nc e

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v T o M y F a t he r W ho M e t i c ul ous l y P l a nne d M y J our ne y f r o m G a i n e s vi l l e F l or i da T o G a bor one B ot s w a na

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vi M ap o f th e D i s t r i c ts of Bots w an a M a p f r o m t h e B o t s w a n a T o u r i s m B o a r d w e b s i t e ( h t t p : / / w w w b o t s w a n a t o u r i s m c o b w / m a p s / m a p s h t m l )

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vi i I n tr od u c t i on A G l i mp s e i n t o C om mu n i ty Bas e d C on s e r vat i on I a r r i ve d a t t he ga t e of t he N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y t he f i r s t e nt i r e l y c om m uni t y or ga ni z e d w i l dl i f e r e s e r ve i n B ot s w a na i n t he pou r i ng r a i n a f t e r a n ove r ni ght t r a i n r i de a nd a n unc om f or t a bl e f our hour s on a bus w i t h a c ool e r f ul l of f ood t ha t w oul d go ba d m uc h f a s t e r t ha n a nt i c i pa t e d a nd a c he a p t e nt t ha t I doubt e d c oul d s t a nd up t o t he r a i n C a m pi ng i n t he S a l t P a ns of B ot s w a na s udde nl y s e e m e d l e s s l i ke a f un a dve nt u r e a nd m or e l i ke t he s i t e of a t r a gi c ne w s s t or y: S t udy A br oa d S t ude nt s uf f oc a t e s i n C ol l a ps e d T e nt F or t una t e l y, I w a s not f or c e d t o s e t up c a m p. T he m a na ge r i nvi t e d m e i nt o he r hom e w hi c h c ont a i ne d t he of f i c e of t he S a nc t ua r y f or t he w e e ke nd, s ha r e d he r f ood w i t h m e dr ove m e a r ound i n t he S a nc t ua r y s i nt e r m i t t i n gl y w or ki ng t r uc k, a nd a r r a nge d a m e e t i ng f or m e w i t h one of t he N a t a C om m uni t y B oa r d m e m be r s A t t he t i m e I vi s i t e d, t he y w e r e w or ki ng t o bui l d a f e nc e a r ound t he c a m ps i t e t o ke e p out t hi e ve s T he f e nc e s a r ound t he bul k of t he S a nc t ua r y w e r e be i ng c ut by a ngr y f a r m e r s l ooki ng f or m or e gr a z i ng l a nd f o r t he i r c a t t l e D e s pi t e t he f a c t t ha t t he N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y w a s p r opos e d by a gr oup of c onc e r ne d c i t i z e ns a nd d e s pi t e t he f a c t t ha t i t w a s a ut hor i z e d t hr ough t r a di t i ona l a nd

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vi i i gove r nm e nt a l a ut hor i t i e s t he c om m uni t y be yond t he e i ght e m pl oye e s f e l t l i t t l e s ym pa t hy or c onne c t i on t o t he S a nc t ua r y I n f a c t w he n t he S a nc t ua r y bui l d i ngs bur ne d dow n i n t he m i ddl e of O c t o be r due t o a bus h f i r e t he out s i de c om m uni t i e s di d not c om e t o t he S a nc t ua r y s a i d. M a ny ot he r C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt ( C B N R M ) pr oj e c t s i n B ot s w a na a r e s t r uggl i ng t o c onne c t t o t he c om m uni t i e s i n w hi c h t he y a r e ba s e d. W i t h t he e xc e pt i on o f s om e de vot e d m a na g e r s a nd s a f a r i gui de s t he l oc a l pe opl e i n B ot s w a na do not ge ne r a l l y f e e l a s e ns e of r e s pons i bi l i t y t o c ons e r ve w i l dl i f e or na t ur a l s pa c e s l e a vi ng t ha t t a s k i n t he ha nds o f t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt I t ha s not he l pe d t ha t m a ny of t h e pr oj e c t s l i ke t he N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y m a ke ve r y l i t t l e m one y t o s e nd ba c k t o t he c om m uni t y a nd t hos e t ha t do a r e of t e n p l a gue d by m i s m a na ge m e nt T he na t i ona l gove r n m e nt of B ot s w a na j us t l a s t ye a r pa s s e d a C B N R M pol i c y t ha t w i l l t a ke 65% of t he pr oc e e ds f r om hunt i ng quot a s t he m os t pr of i t a bl e of C B N R M a c t i vi t i e s a nd pl a c e t he m i n a c ol l e c t i ve f und. M a ny gove r nm e nt o f f i c i a l s N G O of f i c e r s a nd r e s e a r c he r s c ons i de r t hi s t o be b r e a ki ng t he c r uc i a l l i nk be t w e e n c ons e r vi ng w i l dl i f e a nd r ur a l de ve l opm e nt H ow e ve r w hi l e I be l i e ve t he r e voki ng of e c onom i c i nc e nt i ve s t o c ons e r ve i s a s e r i ous c onc e r n, i t i s pe r ha ps not t he r oot i s s ue B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr ogr a m ha s t hus f a r f a i l e d t o i ns pi r e a s e ns e of o w ne r s hi p i n t he c om m uni t i e s t hr ough m e a ni ngf ul c om m uni c a t i on be t w e e n t he gove r nm e nt a nd l oc a l pe opl e e f f e c t i ve a nd t r us t w or t hy i ns t i t ut i ons a nd pa r t i c i pa t i on i n de c i s i on m a ki ng pr oc e dur e s T he s e s hor t f a l l s ha ve i nduc e d a pa t hy, a nd s om e t i m e s hos t i l i t y t ow a r ds t he C B N R M pr oj e c t s M os t s out he r n A f r i c a n c om m uni t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m s ha ve e vol ve d out of a l ong hi s t or y o f p r e s e r va t i oni s t a nd c ons e r va t i on r e gi m e s r un by c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt s

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i x r e gi m e s t ha t ha ve l e f t l e ga c i e s of a l i e na t i on f r om t he l a nd a nd r e s e nt m e nt o f c ons e r va t i on pr a c t i c e s E a c h C B N R M pr ogr a m i s de a l i ng w i t h t he r e m na nt s of c ol oni a l i s m a nd e a r l y i nde pe nde nc e de c i s i ons i n di f f e r i ng m a nne r s a nd i t i s di f f i c ul t t o t e a s e out w hy c e r t a i n i m pl e m e nt a t i on c hoi c e s w e r e m a de a nd w ha t c ons e que nc e s t he y ha d. T o e va l ua t e B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr ogr a m a nd l ook a t t he ke y s t r e ngt hs a nd w e a kne s s e s I us e t he f r a m e w or k o f pol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m w hi c h h i ghl i ght s s pe c i f i c pr i nc i pl e s t ha t a r e ne c e s s a r y f or t he c r e a t i on o f a s t r ong s e l f gove r ni n g pr ogr a m T he r e a r e s e ve r a l di f f e r e nt i nt e r pr e t a t i ons of w ha t a p r ogr a m ne e ds i n or de r t o f unc t i on a nd I ha ve t a i l or e d a l i s t t ha t f i t s t he i s s ue s br ought up m os t f r e que nt l y i n t he s e c onda r y s our c e s I f ound a nd i nt e r v i e w s I c onduc t e d ove r t he c our s e of m y f our a nd ha l f m ont hs i n B ot s w a na i n 2007. G i ve n t he a pa t hy a nd l a c k of c om m uni t y i nvol ve m e nt I w i t ne s s e d i n t he N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y I f oc us e d t hi s t he s i s pr i m a r i l y on t he m e t hods by w h i c h B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m doe s or doe s not i nvol ve c i t i z e ns i n t he pr oc e s s e s of C B N R M I dr a w he a vi l y on c u r r e nt t he o r i e s of pa r t i c i pa t i on t ha t f oc us on t he c r e a t i on of pol i t i c a l s pa c e t o de t e r m i ne w ha t ki nd of pa r t i c i pa t i on c oul d be us e f ul f o r C B N R M i n B ot s w a na I n a ddi t i on t o t he i n de pt h s t udy of B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m I a l s o e xa m i ne B ot s w a na s C B N R M i n r e l a t i on t o Z i m ba bw e s C om m una l A r e a s M a na ge m e nt f or I ndi ge nous R e s our c e s pr ogr a m ( C A M P F I R E ) pr ogr a m a nd N a m i b i a s ve r s i on of C B N R M T he c om pa r a t i ve s t udy of t he s e t hr e e pr ogr a m s i s m e a nt t o pul l out t he de s i gn pr i nc i pl e s t ha t a ppe a r t he m os t c r i t i c a l a c r os s t he boa r d a nd pos s i bl y t r a ns c e nd c ont e xt B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m i s s t r uggl i ng t o e nga ge c om m uni t i e s a nd i nc r e a s e pa r t i c i pa t i on, m a i nl y be c a us e of t he na t i ona l gove r n m e nt s l a c k of s uppor t a nd i de ol ogi c a l c om m i t m e nt t o t he pr ogr a m T he e xpe r i e nc e of C A M P F I R E w a r ns of t he da nge r s of t oo m uc h c e nt r a l c ont r ol a nd N a m i bi a s p r ogr a m

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x pr e s e nt s a hi ghl y e f f e c t i ve bl e nd of gove r nm e nt s u ppor t a nd c om m uni t y i ni t i a t i ve B ot h t he pos i t i ve e xa m pl e of N a m i bi a a nd t he c onc e r ni n g e xa m pl e of Z i m ba bw e s how t ha t t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt a ge nc i e s i n B ot s w a na ne e d t o s t e p ba c k a nd r e e va l ua t e t he i r m e t hods of i nt e r a c t i on w i t h t he C B N R M c om m uni t i e s

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1 C h ap te r 1 Th e o r e ti c a l C on t r i b u ti o n s to C om mu n i t y B as e d C on s e r vat i on C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt ( C B N R M ) e m e r ge d out of t he de c e nt r a l i z a t i on c r a z e of t he 1980s a s t he m os t pol i t i c a l l y a c c e pt a bl e a ns w e r t o t he pr obl e m s of c om bi ni ng c ons e r va t i on a nd r ur a l de v e l opm e nt I m p l e m e nt a t i on ha s not gone s m oot hl y, how e ve r i n t he va s t m a j or i t y o f c a s e s W hi l e de c e nt r a l i z a t i on t he or y pr ovi de d t he i m pe t us f or us i ng C B N R M s t r a t e gi e s a w hol e body of t he or e t i c a l w or k ha s e m e r ge d a r ound a na l yz i ng a nd s ol vi ng t he p r obl e m s t ha t ha ve oc c ur r e d i n i m pl e m e nt a t i on. A f t e r t he f i r s t w a ve o f de c ol oni a l i z a t i on be ga n i n A f r i c a i n t he 1950s a nd 1960s gove r nm e nt s f oc us e d on c r e a t i ng s t r ong c e nt r a l pl a nni ng ove r a gr i c ul t u r a l p r oduc t i on a nd i ndus t r y. N a t i ona l gove r nm e nt s w e r e t he pr i m a r y pr ovi de r s o f publ i c goods a nd s e r vi c e s H ow e ve r t he ne w na t i ona l gove r nm e nt s ove r w he l m i ngl y ha d w e a k i ns t i t ut i ons i ne f f i c i e nt a nd ove r be a r i ng bur e a uc r a c i e s a nd a l a c k of r e s our c e s C e nt r a l i z e d pl a nni ng f a i l e d t o p r ovi de pe opl e w i t h t he s e r vi c e s a nd t he s uppor t t he y ne e de d. 1 D e c e nt r a l i z a t i on, w hi c h s ur ge d t o t he f or e f r on t of t he de ve l opm e nt a ge nda i n t he 1980s i s ba s e d on c onc e pt s t ha t e m e r ge d f r om t he f a i l ur e of c e nt r a l i z e d pl a nni ng I n 1 E d w i n E r i c O t e n y o a n d N a n c y S L i n d 2 0 0 6 C o m p a r a t i v e p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n : t h e e s s e n t i a l r e a d i n g s R e s e a r c h i n p u b l i c p o l i c y a n a l y s i s a n d m a n a g e m e n t v 1 5 A m s t e r d a m : E l s e v i e r J A I 4 3 4

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2 1956, C ha r l e s T i e bout w r ot e a n a r t i c l e ou t l i ni ng t h e r e a s ons f or m ovi ng a w a y f r om a c e nt r a l i z e d s ys t e m a nd r e l yi ng on l oc a l gove r nm e n t s t o pr ovi de s e r vi c e s L oc a l gove r nm e nt s a r e pr e s um e d t o be m or e r e s pons i ve t o t he ne e ds of t he pe opl e m or e a c c ount a bl e a nd m or e know l e dge a bl e a bout t he l o c a l c o ndi t i ons s i nc e t he y a r e c om pe t i ng f or t he s uppor t of c i t i z e ns 2 D e c e nt r a l i z a t i on i s a c t ua l l y a br oa de r c onc e pt e nc om pa s s i ng f our t ype s of pr oc e s s e s : de c onc e nt r a t i on ( t he t r a ns f e r of r e s pons i bi l i t i e s t o l ow e r l e ve l s w i t hi n t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt ) de vol ut i on ( t he t r a ns f e r o f r e s pons i bi l i t i e s t o l oc a l pow e r s o r gove r nm e nt ) de l e ga t i on ( t r a ns f e r of pow e r t o N G O s or ot he r a c t or s out s i de of t he s t a t e ) a nd de r e gul a t i on ( t r a ns f e r of pow e r t o t he pr i va t e s e c t or ) V a r i ous f or m s of de c e nt r a l i z a t i on be ga n t o e m e r ge ou t of t he be l i e f t ha t t he y pr ovi de i nc r e a s e d e f f i c i e nc y, i nc r e a s e d s e ns i t i vi t y t o ne e ds a nd i nc r e a s e d r e pr e s e nt a t i on a nd de m oc r a c y. 3 D e c e nt r a l i z a t i on i n na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt de s pi t e be i ng popul a r f o r m a ny ot he r s e c t or s of s oc i e t y, ha d t o c om pe t e w i t h t he a r gum e nt of G a r r e t t H a r d i n s hi ghl y i nf l ue nt i a l 1968 a r t i c l e t he T r a ge dy of t he C om m ons T he a r t i c l e i s ba s e d on t he pr e m i s e t ha t gi ve n a n ope n a c c e s s pa s t ur e i ndi vi d ua l s w i l l c ont i nue a ddi ng l i ve s t oc k t o t he i r he r ds unt i l e ve nt ua l l y t he e nt i r e e c os ys t e m c ol l a ps e s I ndi vi dua l s i n ope n a c c e s s s i t ua t i ons ha ve no gua r a nt e e s t ha t ot he r s w i l l not b e m a xi m i z i ng t he i r r e s our c e us e c a us i ng i ndi vi dua l i nc e nt i ve s t o ove r r i de t he c ol l e c t i ve good. 4 P ol i c y m a ke r s a s s um e d t ha t onl y a s t r ong c e nt r a l a ut hor i t y c oul d m a i nt a i n c ont r ol ove r na t ur a l r e s our c e s a nd, pr e ve nt ove r e xpl oi t a t i on. H ow e ve r t he c e nt r a l a ut hor i t i e s di d not pr ove e f f e c t i ve a nd 2 C h a r l e s T i e b o u t A P u r e T h e o r y o f L o c a l E x p e n d i t u r e s 1 9 5 6 T h e J o u r n a l o f P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y V o l 6 4 ( 5 ) 4 1 6 3 C o m p a r a t i v e P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 4 4 2 4 G a r r e t t H a r d i n T h e T r a g e d y o f t h e C o m m o n s 1 9 6 8 S c i e n c e V o l 1 6 2 1 2 4 3 1 2 4 8

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3 w he n s om e s t udi e s w e r e r e l e a s e d on t he be ne f i t s o f de c e nt r a l i z a t i on i n s om e s e l e c t a r e a s pol i c y m a ke r s dono r s a nd t he i nt e r na t i ona l c om m uni t y e m br a c e d i t w hol e he a r t e dl y f or r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt r e gi m e s a c r os s t he boa r d, r e ga r dl e s s of l oc a l gove r na nc e c a pa c i t y or w i l l i ngne s s 5 D e c e nt r a l i z a t i on i n r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt a c c or di ng t o s uppor t e r s ha s t hr e e m a i n a dva nt a ge s : a c c e s s t o l oc a l know l e dge qui c k f e e dba c k, a nd t he a voi da nc e o f w i de s pr e a d f a i l ur e L oc a l know l e dge p r ovi de s de t a i l e d unde r s t a ndi ng of t he e nvi r onm e nt i n w hi c h t he pol i c y i s ope r a t i ng t hus m a ki ng r u l e s ge ne r a t e d by l oc a l a c t or s m or e a ppr op r i a t e a nd e f f e c t i ve D e c e nt r a l i z a t i on p r ogr a m s a l s o a s s um e t ha t l oc a l us e r s a r e m or e a de pt a t e xc l udi ng unt r us t w or t hy i nd i vi dua l s de c r e a s i ng t h e ne e d f or e nf or c e m e nt a nd gua r ds L oc a l a c t or s a r e a l s o be t t e r a bl e t o r e por t qui c kl y a nd e f f e c t i ve l y t he r e s ul t s of a pol i c y a nd t he e f f e c t on t he e nvi r onm e nt s i nc e t he y i nt e r a c t w i t h i t da i l y. F i na l l y pe r ha ps t he m os t i m por t a nt a dva nt a ge o f de c e nt r a l i z a t i on i s t h a t by c r e a t i ng m a ny l oc a l gove r na nc e s ys t e m s c ha nc e s a r e s om e of t he m w i l l f unc t i on p r ope r l y, e ve n i f ot he r s f a i l T hi s s t r a t e gy gr e a t l y r e duc e s t he c os t s of f a i l ur e a nd t h e s m a l l e r s c a l e of i m pl e m e nt a t i on s houl d, i n t he o r y, m a ke a da pt a t i on a nd i ns t i t ut i ona l c ha nge e a s i e r 6 D e s pi t e t he a ppe a l a nd s i m pl i c i t y of de c e nt r a l i z a t i on a s a s t r a t e gy f o r r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt t he i m pl e m e nt a t i on of i t ha s be e n m e s s y, c om pl i c a t e d, a nd m os t l y uns uc c e s s f ul T he r e a s ons f or t he s e s hor t c om i ngs a r e num e r ous T he a s s um pt i on t ha t l oc a l c om m uni t i e s a r e a l w a ys a bl e t o or ga ni z e t he m s e l ve s i s not va l i d due t o a ny or a l l o f t he f ol l ow i ng : c onf l i c t w i t hi n t he c om m uni t y, hi gh pol i t i c a l c os t s l a c k o f l e a de r s hi p, 5 E l i n o r O s t r o m L a r r y D S c h r o e d e r a n d S u s a n G W y n n e 1 9 9 3 I n s t i t u t i o n a l i n c e n t i v e s a n d s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t : i n f r a s t r u c t u r e p o l i c i e s i n p e r s p e c t i v e T h e o r e t i c a l l e n s e s o n p u b l i c p o l i c y B o u l d e r : W e s t v i e w P r e s s 7 4 6 I n s t i t u t i o n a l I n c e n t i v e s 7 5

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4 unc oope r a t i ve or hos t i l e h i ghe r gove r nm e nt s t r uc t u r e s a nd l a c k o f de pe nde nc y on t he r e s our c e i n que s t i on. L oc a l c om m uni t i e s a r e not a l w a ys or e ve n us ua l l y, de m oc r a t i c a nd t hi s c a n l e a d t o l oc a l t yr a nni e s c ont r ol l i ng t he r e s our c e 7 C onf l i c t s a r e not e a s i l y de a l t w i t h on a l oc a l l e ve l s i nc e t he y i nc r e a s e w i t h t he g r e a t e r c onne c t i on t o r e s our c e s a nd e xt e r na l m e di a t or s a r e not a l w a ys a va i l a bl e M a ny de c e nt r a l i z e d r e gi m e s a r e a l s o not a bl e t o a da pt t o c ha nge s i n t he e nvi r onm e nt e f f e c t i ve l y a nd ke e p ol d s ys t e m s i n pl a c e due t o t he l a c k of s c i e nt i f i c i nf o r m a t i on a nd c a pa c i t y i s s ue s 8 I t i s c l e a r f r om e m pi r i c a l e vi de nc e t ha t ne i t he r t he or i e s of c e nt r a l i z a t i on nor de c e nt r a l i z a t i on c a n be t out e d a s one s i z e f i t s a l l s ol ut i ons N e w i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m a nd i t s out gr ow t h, p ol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m a r e c ur r e nt l y be i ng a ppl i e d t o na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt t o de c r e a s e t he ga p be t w e e n t he or y a nd pr a c t i c e N e w I ns t i t ut i ona l i s m e m e r ge d a s t hr e e s c hool s of t hought i n t he 1960s a nd 1970s : r a t i ona l c hoi c e i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m hi s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m a nd s oc i ol ogi c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m A l l t h r e e pr ovi de va l i d i ns i ght s i nt o how i ns t i t ut i ons i nt e r a c t w i t h a nd a f f e c t i ndi vi dua l be ha vi or I ns t i t ut i ons i n t he s e t he or i e s a r e s e t s of r ul e s a nd nor m s a nd m e t hods o f o r ga ni z a t i on. R a t i ona l C hoi c e i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m vi e w s t he be ne f i t of i ns t i t ut i ons i n l ow e r i ng t r a ns a c t i on c os t s of a c t i ons T he t he or y a s s um e s t ha t pe opl e ha ve c e r t a i n, f i xe d pr e f e r e nc e s a nd a l w a ys be ha ve r a t i ona l l y t o m a xi m i z e t he a va i l a bi l i t y o f t hos e pr e f e r e nc e s G a r r e t t H a r di n p r e s e nt s t hi s i de a i n t h e T r a ge dy o f t he C om m ons s c e na r i o; i ndi vi dua l s w i l l s t r a t e gi c a l l y w o r k t o i nc r e a s e t he i r ow n be ne f i t r e ga r d l e s s of t he e f f e c t s on t he c om m uni t y R a t i ona l C hoi c e t he o r i s t s a r gue t ha t i ns t i t ut i ons a r e i n p l a c e t o pr ov i de s t r uc t ur e t o t he s e i nt e r a c t i ons a nd m a i nt a i n a s e ns e of publ i c good. H ow e ve r t he 7 I n s t i t u t i o n a l I n c e n t i v e s 7 5 8 I n s t i t u t i o n a l I n c e n t i v e s 7 6

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5 i ns t i t ut i on w i l l on l y s ur vi ve i f i t c ont i nue s t o pr ovi de be ne f i t s f or t he pe opl e i nt e r a c t i ng w i t h i t 9 H i s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m s uppor t s t he i de a t ha t i n s t i t ut i ons a r e f unc t i oni ng w i t hi n a n ove r a l l or ga ni z a t i on s t r uc t u r e a nd a r e t he r e by a f f e c t e d by t he r u l e s a nd nor m s of t he pol i t i c a l s t r uc t ur e H i s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t s w hi l e a c c e pt i ng t ha t i ndi vi dua l s do oc c a s i ona l l y a c t i n a s t r a t e gi c m a xi m i z i ng f a s hi on r e c ogni z e t ha t w or l dvi e w s a nd hi s t or i c a l ba c kgr ound a l s o e nt e r t he de c i s i ons m a de i n a s oc i e t y. T he y s t r e s s pa t h de pe nde nc e t he i de a t ha t c ur r e nt s i t ua t i ons a r e t he r e s ul t of c e r t a i n a c t i o ns t a ke n i n t he pa s t a s a n i m por t a nt c ha r a c t e r i s t i c of i ns t i t ut i ons s i nc e i ns t i t ut i ons a r e ba s e d on t he w or l dvi e w s of t he pe opl e a nd c ont e xt s t ha t c r e a t e t he m H i s t or i c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m a l s o a na l yz e s pow e r a s ym m e t r i e s pr e s e nt i n s oc i e t i e s a nd how i ns t i t ut i ons e m body or de ve l op t he m 1 0 S oc i ol ogi c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m i s c onc e r ne d w i t h c ul t ur e a nd how i t c r e a t e s c e r t a i n i ns t i t ut i ons I ns t i t ut i ons i n t hi s br a nc h of t he or y t r a ns c e nd r ul e s a nd pr oc e dur e s a nd a dopt s ym bol s a nd m or a l s t ha t gui de hum a n a c t i on I ns t i t ut i ons be c om e m or a l t e m pl a t e s 1 1 T he f u r t he s t r e m ove d f r om r a t i ona l c hoi c e a c t i ons s oc i ol ogi c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m pos i t s t ha t t he r a t i ona l c hoi c e i n a s i t ua t i on i s i n f a c t s oc i a l l y c ons t r uc t e d ba s e d on t he c ul t ur a l nor m s of a s oc i e t y. S i nc e t he i r e m e r ge nc e i n t he 1960s t he ne w i ns t i t u t i ona l i s m s ha ve be e n s l ow l y c om i ng t oge t he r t o i nf o r m pol i c y a c t i ons R a t i ona l c hoi c e i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m hi ghl i ght s t he i m por t a nc e of c l e a r e c onom i c i nc e nt i ve s i n de c e nt r a l i z a t i on pr ogr a m s T he hi s t or i c a l 9 P e t e r A H a l l R o s e m a r y C R T a y l o r 1 9 9 6 P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e a n d t h e T h r e e N e w I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m s P o l i t i c a l S t u d i e s V o l X L I V 9 3 6 9 5 7 9 4 2 1 0 T h r e e N e w I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m s 9 3 7 1 1 T h r e e N e w I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m s 9 4 7

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6 pe r s pe c t i ve poi nt s t o t he i m po r t a nc e of pr e vi ous i n s t i t ut i ona l s t r uc t ur e s : w ha t t he c os t s of c ha nge m a y be w ho he l d pow e r i n t he pr e vi ous s y s t e m how w e l l de c e nt r a l i z a t i on of r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt f i t s w i t h ot he r i ns t i t ut i ons T he s oc i ol ogi c a l i ns t i t ut i ona l i s t s f oc u s on t he e f f e c t s o f i ns t i t ut i ona l c ont r a di c t i ons t ha t pr e ve nt i ndi vi dua l s f r om ge t t i ng a s e ns e of c e r t a i nt y o f l ong t e r m pl a ns f r om de c e nt r a l i z a t i on. T he i s s ue of c e r t a i nt y i s pa r t i c ul a r l y i m por t a nt t o na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt s i nc e s hor t s i ght e dne s s us ua l l y l e a ds t o ove r e xpl oi t a t i on. P ol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m a n out g r ow t h of ne w i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m e xa m i ne s t he m ul t i di m e ns i ona l f a c e t s of ne s t e d i ns t i t ut i ons a nd how t he l e ve l s of gove r na nc e ( i nt e r na t i ona l na t i ona l non gove r nm e nt a l a nd l oc a l ) i nt e r a c t w i t h e a c h ot he r t o c r e a t e i ns t i t ut i ona l c ont e xt s T hi s a ppr oa c h de l ve s m or e f ul l y i nt o t he i nt r i c a c i e s of c r e a t i ng a de c e nt r a l i z e d r e gi m e P o l yc e nt r i c a na l ys i s a l s o pr o vi de s a m or e c om pr e he ns i ve vi e w t ha n m os t de c e nt r a l i z a t i on a na l ys e s s i nc e i t m ove s b e yond t he l oc a l s phe r e 1 2 P ol yc e nt r i c gove r na nc e i s de f i ne d by O s t r om a s a gove r nm e nt t ha t i s s t r uc t ur e d s o a c t or s w i t hi n t he s ys t e m a r e g i ve n oppor t uni t i e s f or i ns t i t ut i ona l i nnova t i o n a nd a da pt a t i on t hr ough e xpe r i m e nt a t i on a nd l e a r ni ng 1 3 I t c ha l l e nge s t he c onc e pt of c ooki e c ut t e r m ode l s of gove r nm e nt a nd r e j e c t s t he c r e a t i on of f ul l y de c e nt r a l i z e d o r c e nt r a l i z e d gove r na nc e s t r uc t ur e s P ol yc e nt r i c gove r nm e nt s ys t e m s br e a k dow n i nt o s pe c i f i e d, i nde pe nde nt a ut hor i t i e s t ha t c a n m a ke a nd e nf or c e r ul e s i n a ge ogr a phi c a r e a T he s e a ut hor i t i e s c a n e i t he r c ont r a c t w i t h o t he r gove r n m e nt or p r i va t e a ut hor i t i e s t o f ul f i l l t he 1 2 I n s t i t u t i o n a l I n c e n t i v e s 7 7 1 3 I n s t i t u t i o n a l I n c e n t i v e s 7 7

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7 ne e ds of t he a r e a o r s e r ve a s t he i r ow n p r oduc t i on uni t s A c i t i z e n c a n be unde r t he j ur i s di c t i on of a nd be l ong t o m a ny o f t he s e s m a l l g ove r nm e nt a ut hor i t i e s 1 4 P ol yc e nt r i c t he or i s t s a r gue t ha t t he c om pl e xi t y of n a t ur a l r e s our c e s c r e a t e s di f f e r e nt i nc e nt i ve s bot h pe r ve r s e a nd be ne f i c i a l a t di f f e r e nt l e ve l s of gove r na nc e T he r e f or e a n e f f e c t i ve s ys t e m i s not ba s e d on how de c e nt r a l i z e d i t i s but how e f f e c t i ve l y i t m a na ge s t o ba l a nc e ne ga t i ve i nc e nt i ve s a nd l a c ki ng i nf or m a t i on a t one l e ve l of gove r na nc e w i t h pos i t i ve i nc e nt i ve s a nd f l ow of i n f or m a t i on a t a not he r P ol yc e nt r i c t he or i s t s a r e i nt e r e s t e d i n m ul t i l e ve l a na l ys e s of h ow a c t or s a t di f f e r e nt l e ve l s o f gove r na nc e i nt e r a c t a nd i n f l ue nc e e a c h ot he r s de c i s i on m a ki ng. 1 5 C ons i de r i ng t ha t t he l a c k of c l e a r i nc e nt i ve s f or e nvi r onm e nt a l c ons e r v a t i on i s t he pr i m a r y r e a s on f or de c e nt r a l i z i ng r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt a nd pos s i bl y t he r e a s on w hy m a ny p r ogr a m s f a i l t he a na l ys i s of how c e r t a i n i nc e nt i ve s a t s om e l e ve l s of gove r nm e nt a f f e c t o t he r s c oul d be qui t e us e f ul i n de t e r m i ni ng t he r e a s ons f or s uc c e s s or f a i l u r e i n na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt s ys t e m s P ol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m i s i n f a c t a t i t s ba s i c s a m e t hod of a na l yz i ng a nd e va l ua t i ng pr ogr a m s M a ny pol yc e nt r i c t he or i s t s a r e de ve l opi ng de s i gn pr i nc i pl e s a nd de t e r m i ni ng t he i m por t a nt va r i a bl e s i n c r e a t i ng s e l f gove r ni ng i ns t i t ut i ons i n bot h t he de ve l opi ng a nd de ve l ope d w or l d E l i no r O s t r om W i l l i a m B l om qui s t a nd J a m e s S W uns c h ha ve de t e r m i ne d t hr e e di f f e r e nt but c e r t a i nl y r e l a t a bl e s e t s of de s i gn pr i nc i pl e s t ha t e s t a bl i s h w ha t t he y c ons i de r t o be t he m os t c r i t i c a l of va r i a bl e s i n pol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ons B l om qui s t a nd O s t r om de ve l ope d t he m os t ba s i c of t he s e c ons i s t i ng of f i ve c ondi t i ons t ha t a r e c r uc i a l t o t he f unc t i oni ng o f a s e l f gove r na nc e i ns t i t ut i ona l s e t up : 1 4 I n s t i t u t i o n a l I n c e n t i v e s 1 8 7 1 5 I n s t i t u t i o n a l I n c e n t i v e s 7 3

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8 i nf or m a t i on, c om m uni c a t i on, s ym m e t r y e nf o r c e m e nt a nd m oni t or i ng 1 6 I n t he a r t i c l e B l om qui s t a nd O s t r om m odi f y t he c ondi t i ons de ve l ope d by L e w i s a nd C ow e ns 1 7 t o r e gul a t e a r e s our c e r e gi m e w i t hout i ns t i t ut i ons i nt o c ondi t i ons m e a ni ngf ul t o i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d r e s our c e r e gi m e s T he c ondi t i ons ( I dub t he m di m e ns i ons be l ow ) e s t a bl i s h t he c r i t i c a l ne e d f o r c l e a r p r oc e s s e s t o ga i n i nf or m a t i on c om m uni c a t i on a m ong a l l s t a ke hol de r s t ha t c a n l e a d t o r e s ol ut i on o f pr ob l e m s s ym m e t r y i n t he di s t r i but i on of r e s pons i bi l i t i e s a nd be ne f i t s ba s e d on i nt e r e s t ( w he r e t he i nt e r e s t i s a s ym m e t r i c ) e nf or c e m e nt t ha t de c r e a s e s t he pr e s e nc e of f r e e r i d e r s a nd i nc r e a s e s c oope r a t i on, a nd l a s t l y m oni t or i ng t ha t ke e ps r e s our c e us e a nd e nf o r c e m e nt j us t a nd r e a s ona bl e 1 8 O s t r om f ol l ow e d t hi s l i s t i n 1990 w i t h a s e t o f e i ght i ndi vi dua l de s i gn pr i nc i pl e s t ha t m o r e s pe c i f i c a l l y de t e r m i ne t he va r i a bl e s i n s e l f go ve r ni ng s ys t e m T he s e pr i nc i pl e s i nc l ude ne c e s s a r i e s l i ke c l e a r l y de f i ne d bounda r i e s ne s t e d e nt e r pr i s e s a nd m i ni m a l r e c ogni t i on of r i ght s t o or ga ni z e W uns c h de ve l ope d a l i s t of e i ght p r i nc i pl e s t ha t w e r e c onc e r ne d w i t h t he m o r e e c onom i c a nd p r a c t i c e i s s ue s of pol yc e nt r i c p r ogr a m i nc l udi ng pr i nc i pl e s s uc h a s t e c hni c a l c e r t a i nt y, s pi l l ove r s a nd e xt e r na l i t i e s a nd t he i m por t a nc e of c o p r oduc t i on. 1 9 T oge t he r a l l of t h e s e pr i nc i pl e s a nd c ondi t i ons c om bi ne t o pr oj e c t a f a i r l y c om pr e he ns i ve l i s t of w ha t c om p os e s a n e f f e c t i ve pol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l s e t up. O ne c r i t i que of pol yc e nt r i c gove r na nc e s ys t e m s i s t ha t t he a bunda nc e of i nde pe nde nt gove r na nc e a ut hor i t i e s w oul d c r e a t e a l e ga l bi r d s ne s t a s e a c h a ut hor i t y m a de i t s ow n, pos s i bl y c ont r a di c t or y l a w s O s t r om c l a i m s c ohe r e nc e i n l a w i s 1 6 M i c h a e l D M c G i n n i s e d P o l y c e n t r i c G o v e r n a n c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 1 9 9 9 A n n A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n P r e s s 6 2 1 7 P o l y c e n t r i c G o v e r n a n c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 6 7 1 8 P o l y c e n t r i c G o v e r n a n c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 6 8 1 9 P o l y c e n t r i c G o v e r n a n c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 2 5 0

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9 a c hi e ve dby a j udi c i a l s ys t e m c ons i s t i ng of m ul t i pl e l e ve l s of c our t s a l l r e c ogni z i ng t he pr i nc i pl e hi e r a r c hy of l a w 2 0 T he que s t i on i s how c a n de ve l opi ng c ount r i e s t ha t of t e n ha ve dys f unc t i ona l or i ns uf f i c i e nt c our t s ys t e m s m a i nt a i n a s ys t e m of s uc h l e ga l c om pl e xi t y? O s t r om c i t e s t he c ont i nue d e xi s t e nc e of t r a di t i ona l a nd r e l i gi ous c our t s ys t e m s i n s om e c ount r i e s a s a n e xa m pl e of f unc t i oni ng, l i m i t e d pol yc e nt r i c i s m a nd c ons e que nt l y, a r e a s on t o be l e s s pe s s i m i s t i c a bout t he pr ol i f e r a t i on of l e ga l s ys t e m s A l s o, t he r ul e of l a w c oul d be m a i nt a i ne d by l oc a l pe opl e vot i ng pol i t i c i a ns i n or out o f of f i c e w he n t he y do not c onf or m t o t he l a w s of l a r ge r gove r nm e nt j u r i s di c t i ons 2 1 U nf or t una t e l y, t he s e r e but t a l s do not hol d m uc h w e i ght i n m a ny c a s e s T r a di t i ona l c our t s ys t e m s a r e of t e n i n c onf l i c t w i t h na t i ona l gove r n m e nt s or r e pr e s e nt onl y a l i m i t e d por t i on of t he popul a t i on. M a ny t r a di t i ona l c ou r t s a r e di s c r i m i na t or y t ow a r ds m a r gi na l i z e d m e m be r s of s oc i e t y. A s f o r t he pow e r of t he vot e m a ny l oc a l pow e r pos i t i ons a r e he l d by c o r r upt l oc a l e l i t e m a ki ng i t di f f i c ul t f or a popul a t i on t o f os t e r c ha nge H ow e ve r t he r e a r e t he o r i e s a nd m e t hods t ha t a r e m e a nt t o i nc r e a s e c a pa c i t y t o t a ke a dva nt a ge of a nd r un ne s t e d gove r na nc e s ys t e m s I t i s c l e a r t ha t a pol yc e nt r i c s ys t e m w oul d r e qui r e c i t i z e ns t ha t a r e i nf o r m e d, i nt e r a c t i ve a nd i nve s t e d i n t he pol i t i c a l pr oc e s s P ol yc e nt r i c gove r na nc e m a y be t he m os t e f f i c i e nt s e t up f or a na t ur a l r e s our c e r e gi m e but o nl y i f t he pe opl e a nd c om m uni t i e s i nvol ve d ha ve t he pa r t i c i pa t i on f o r um s c oope r a t i v e i ns t i t ut i ons a nd m ot i va t i on t o r un i t T he pa r t i c i pa t or y a ppr oa c h, w i t h a ddi t i ons f r om de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y t he or y a nd e vol vi ng t he or i e s of ow ne r s hi p, p r ovi de s i ns i ght i n t o how l oc a l pe opl e c a n be c ons ul t e d a nd i nc or por a t e d i nt o pr og r a m s l i ke C B N R M 2 0 I n s t i t u t i o n a l i n c e n t i v e s 1 9 4 2 1 I n s t i t u t i o n a l i n c e n t i v e s 1 9 6

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10 I n t he e a r l y 1980s R obe r t s C ha m be r s e s t a bl i s he d a m e t hod of i nc r e a s i ng pa r t i c i pa t i on of r ur a l c om m uni t i e s i n de ve l opm e nt pr ogr a m s know n a s P a r t i c i pa t or y R ur a l A ppr a i s a l ( P R A ) 2 2 P R A i s ba s e d on t he pr i nc i pl e s of di r e c t l e a r ni n g f r om l oc a l pe opl e of f s e t t i ng bi a s e s opt i m i z i ng t r a de of f s t r i a ngul a t i ng, s e e ki ng di ve r s i t y f a c i l i t a t i ng a na l ys i s by l oc a l pe opl e pr a c t i c i ng c r i t i c a l s e l f a w a r e ne s s a nd r e s pons i bi l i t y, a nd s ha r i ng. 2 3 P R A p r a c t i c e s a t t e m pt t o p r ove t ha t i t i s pos s i bl e f or poor m a r gi na l i z e d pe opl e t he m a i n t a r ge t s of C B N R M pr ogr a m s t o i nf or m a nd a na l yz e pol i c y. A pl e t hor a of m e t hods a r e c om pi l e d unde r P R A i nc l udi ng l oc a l m a ppi ng, r ol e pl a y t hr ough t he a t e r f oc us gr oups a nd s e m i s t r u c t u r e d i nt e r vi e w i ng w hi c h a r e a l l de s i gne d t o gi ve l oc a l pe opl e a voi c e i n na t u r a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt 2 4 T he P R A a ppr oa c h f oc us e s on pe r s ona l r e s pons i bi l i t y a nd t he vo l unt a r y di s t r i but i on of pow e r o f t he e l i t e of s oc i e t y, a f a c t t ha t ha s c a us e d s om e c r i t i que P R A doe s not pr ovi de a n e f f e c t i ve m e c ha ni s m f o r r e gul a t i ng pow e r r e l a t i ons hi ps be yond i ndi vi dua l c hoi c e A l t hough P R A t he o r y r e c ogni z e s t ha t s om e gr oups of pe opl e s uc h a s w om e n a nd young a dul t s a r e m a r gi na l i z e d, i t doe s not pr ov i de a ns w e r s t o c ha ng i ng t he pow e r s t r uc t ur e s but r a t he r f oc us e s on w or ki ng a r ound t he m by di f f e r e nt i a t i ng t he gr oups a nd s pe a ki ng t o t he m s e pa r a t e l y. 2 5 I l a n K a poor i n a c r i t i que of R obe r t C ha m be r s s w or k on P R A f i nds t ha t C ha m be r s s f oc us on t he e m pi r i c a l r a t he r t ha n t he t he or e t i c a l br i ngs out que s t i ons of l e gi t i m a c y a nd j us t i c e i n P R A pr a c t i c e Q ue s t i ons c onc e r ni ng w ho i s be i ng r e pr e s e nt e d 2 2 B i l l C o o k e a n d U m a K o t h a r i e d P a r t i c i p a t i o n t h e N e w T y r a n n y ? 2 0 0 1 L o n d o n : Z e d B o o k s 5 2 3 R o b e r t C h a m b e r s P a r t i c i p a t o r y R u r a l A p p r a i s a l ( P R A ) : C h a l l e n g e s P o t e n t i a l s a n d P a r a d i g m 1 9 9 4 W o r l d D e v e l o p m e n t V o l 2 2 ( 1 0 ) 1 4 3 7 1 4 5 4 1 4 3 7 2 4 R o b e r t C h a m b e r s B e y o n d W h o s e R e a l i t y C o u n t s ? N e w M e t h o d s w e n o w n e e d ? 1 9 9 8 S t u d i e s i n C u l t u r e s O r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d S o c i e t i e s V o l 4 2 7 9 3 0 1 2 8 1 2 5 P a r t i c i p a t o r y R u r a l A p p r a i s a l 1 4 4 5

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11 a nd how di f f e r e nt i nt e r e s t s a r e s uppor t e d or w e a ke ne d by P R A pr a c t i c e s a r e ove r s ha dow e d by w he t he r or not t he pr a c t i c e i s de e m e d t o w o r k w i t hi n t he s t a t us quo K a poor us e s de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y a s a f oi l t o C ha m be r s s w or k t o i l l um i na t e s om e o f t he t he or e t i c a l ga ps i n P R A T he t hr e e ga ps he s e e s a r e t he l a c k of l e gi t i m a c y i n P R A pr oc e dur e s l i m i t e d c onc e r n f o r t he j us t i c e of out c o m e s a nd t he r e pr e s e nt a t i on of c ul t u r a l a nd s oc i a l di f f e r e nc e 2 6 P R A a nd de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y bot h s ha r e a f oc us on publ i c s phe r e c om m uni c a t i on a nd de c e nt r a l i z a t i on of pol i t i c s H ow e ve r de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y, unl i ke P R A ha s de ve l ope d a t he or e t i c a l f r a m e w or k t o r e gul a t e t he di a l ogue t a ki ng pl a c e i n t he publ i c s phe r e T he i de a l s pe e c h s i t ua t i on, w he r e r a t i ona l un f or c e d, a nd e qua l di s c us s i on oc c ur s s e r ve s a s a c ount e r f a c t ua l t o e va l ua t e a nd a l t e r r e a l l i f e publ i c di a l ogue s D e l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y be l i e ve s i n t he i ns t i t ut i ona l i z a t i on of f or m a l r ul e s t o gove r n di s c us s i on t o ke e p i t un f or c e d, i nc l us i ve a nd ope n t o e ve r yone P R A i s l a c ki ng r ul e s c ove r i ng i nt e r a c t i ons a m ongs t c om m uni t y m e m be r s ; i t onl y out l i ne s pr oc e dur e s f o r out s i de r c om m uni c a t i on. T he i n f or m a l i t y a nd uns y s t e m a t i c na t ur e of P R A w hi l e pr ovi di ng f l e xi bi l i t y t o de a l w i t h m a ny s i t ua t i ons doe s not a de qua t e l y pr ot e c t m a r gi na l i z e d i nput a nd r e qui r e s t he c om m uni t i e s t he m s e l ve s t o c r e a t e t he r ul e s f o r di s c us s i on. 2 7 T he c r e a t i on o f i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d f o r m a l r ul e s of d i s c us s i on a l s o ne e ds t o i nc l ude w a ys of e ns ur i ng j us t out c om e s P R A doe s not p r o vi de a w a y of f i l t e r i ng a r gu m e nt s a nd i de a s T he f oc us i n P R A i s e nt i r e l y on ge t t i ng pe op l e t o pa r t i c i pa t e a nd i t doe s not s ugge s t a w a y t o m ove t ow a r d c ons e n s us D e l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y pr e s e nt s s om e t hi ng 2 6 I l a n K a p o o r 2 0 0 2 T h e D e v i l s i n t h e T h e o r y : a C r i t i c a l A s s e s s m e n t o f R o b e r t C h a m b e r s w o r k o n p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m e n t T h i r d W o r l d Q u a r t e r l y V o l 2 3 ( 1 ) 1 0 1 1 1 7 1 0 4 2 7 T h e D e v i l s i n t h e T h e o r y 1 0 6

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12 c a l l e d c om m uni c a t i ve r a t i ona l i t y t o s t r i ve f or i n di s c us s i on s C om m uni c a t i ve r a t i ona l i t y i s a t t a i ne d w he n t he be t t e r a r gum e nt i s a c c e pt e d, r a t he r t ha n t he s t a nc e of t he m os t pow e r f ul D e c i s i ons a r e m a de not t hr ough v ot i ng, but t hr ough qua l i t a t i ve di s c us s i on a nd c ol l e c t i ve c om pr om i s e 2 8 T he i ns t i t u t i ona l i z a t i on of c ons e ns us m a ki ng pr oc e dur e s a nd t he m i ni m i z i ng of pow e r i ne qua l i t i e s a r e c r i t i c a l f o r de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y. P R A doe s not p r ovi de a de qua t e a na l ys i s of pow e r a r r a nge m e nt s r e l yi ng on i ndi vi dua l s t o s t e p dow n vol un t a r i l y f r om pos i t i on s of pow e r B ot h de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y a nd P R A do not e f f e c t i ve l y ba l a nc e m a i nt a i ni ng s oc i oc ul t ur a l di f f e r e nc e a nd p r om ot i ng c ons e ns us S om e of f s hoot s of de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y, how e ve r s ugge s t m e t hods l i ke e nc l a ve s or di f f e r i ng de l i be r a t i ve s pa c e s f or oppos i ng gr oups t o r e gr oup a nd r e w or k i de a s a f t e r a c ons e ns us ha s be e n r e a c he d, e ns ur i ng t ha t c ons e ns us i s ne ve r a pe r m a ne nt s t a t e M ul t i pl e de l i be r a t i ve s pa c e s w oul d pr om ot e a s ys t e m of a l l i a nc e s a nd ne t w or ks pos s i bl y s i m i l a r t o w ha t pol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m s ugge s t s D e l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y us e f ul i s not onl y i n c r i t i q ui ng C ha m be r s s w or k on P R A but a l s o i n c l a r i f yi ng a r e a s of i m po r t a nc e t ha t na t u r a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt l i t e r a t ur e doe s not us ua l l y e xa m i ne T he r e i s a ge ne r a l unde r s t a ndi ng i n na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt l i t e r a t ur e t ha t t he m o r e m e a ni ngf ul p a r t i c i pa t i on i s l i nke d t o t he de c i s i ons m a de t he g r e a t e r t he s a t i s f a c t i on i n t he p r ogr a m H ow e ve r t he r e i s l e s s unde r s t a ndi ng of t he a c t ua l pa r t i c i pa t i on p r oc e s s U s i ng de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y t o a na l yz e r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt pr ogr a m s w oul d i nc r e a s e unde r s t a ndi ng of i m por t a nt a s pe c t s l i ke 2 8 T h e D e v i l s i n t h e T h e o r y 1 0 7

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13 r e pr e s e nt a t i on be yond di r e c t s t a ke hol de r s i nt e r na l a nd e xt e r na l f o r m s of e xc l us i on, a nd i nt e r pe r s ona l a nd i ns t i t ut i ona l t r us t 2 9 D e s pi t e i t s t he or e t i c a l s hor t c om i ngs t he m e t hodol ogy of P R A he a vi l y i nf l ue nc e d pa r t i c i pa t or y de ve l opm e nt a nd pa r t i c i pa t i on w a s unc r i t i c a l l y r e ga r de d a s a pos i t i ve f o r c e f or p r ogr a m s i n t he de ve l opi ng w o r l d f o r a num be r of ye a r s H ow e ve r i n 2001 a c ol l e c t i on of a r t i c l e s w a s publ i s he d t e r m i ng pa r t i c i pa t i on a s t he ne w t yr a nny 3 0 T he book s ugge s t s t ha t pa r t i c i pa t i on c r e a t e s t hr e e t ype s of t y r a nny: t y r a nny ove r de c i s i on m a ki ng a nd c ont r ol t y r a nny of t he g r o up, a nd t yr a nny ove r m e t hod T he a ut hor s o f t he a r t i c l e s de t e r m i ne t ha t pa r t i c i pa t i on o f t e n c om m a n de e r s a nd t he n ove r r i de s p r e vi ous l y e xi s t i ng m e t hods of or ga ni z a t i on a nd di s c us s i on, d r i ve s out t he di s c us s i on of o t he r pos s i bl y m or e e f f e c t i ve m e t hods o f de ve l opm e nt ye t a l s o r e i nf or c e s e xi s t i ng pow e r dyna m i c s r a t he r t ha n a l t e r i ng pow e r s t r uc t ur e s 3 1 P a r t i c i pa t i on w a s r e c l a i m e d a s a pot e nt i a l l y pos i t i ve f o r c e i n 2004 by a c ol l e c t i on o f a ut hor s s t r e s s i ng t he i de ol ogi c a l a s pe c t of pa r t i c i pa t i on i ns t e a d o f t he m or e t e c hni c a l P R A T he a ut hor s ha ve i nc or por a t e d m a ny di s c us s i ons f r om de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y a n d de l ve i nt o w ha t m a ke s a c i t i z e n a nd w ha t s ha pe s t he pol i t i c a l s pa c e c i t i z e ns pa r t i c i pa t e i n, pl a c i ng e m pha s i s on t he ne c e s s i t y f or c i t i z e ns t o c r e a t e a n i nc l us i ve pol i t i c a l e nvi r on m e nt f or pa r t i c i pa t i on P a r t i c i pa t i on, i n t hi s l i ght ha s a pow e r f ul a na l yt i c a l pos i t i on a nd c a n he l p i de nt i f y t he r ol e of c i t i z e ns a nd t he i nc e nt i ve s ( pe r ve r s e a nd pos i t i ve ) t ha t e na bl e t he m t o pa r t i c i pa t e 3 2 2 9 J o h n R P a r k i n s R o s s E M i t c h e l l 2 0 0 5 P u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n a s p u b l i c d e b a t e : A d e l i b e r a t i v e t u r n i n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t S o c i e t y a n d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s V o l 1 8 5 2 9 5 4 0 5 3 5 3 0 P a r t i c i p a t i o n : T h e N e w T y r a n n y ? 7 3 1 P a r t i c i p a t i o n : T h e N e w T y r a n n y ? 8 3 2 S a m u e l H i c k e y a n d G i l e s M o h a n e d P a r t i c i p a t i o n : F r o m T y r a n n y t o T r a n s f o r m a t i o n ? 2 0 0 4 L o n d o n : Z e d B o o k s 3

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14 I n e s s e nc e a l l of t he s e t he or i e s pr og r a m s a nd pr a c t i c e s of na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt a r e t r yi ng t o f i nd t he be s t w a y t o e m b e d a s e ns e of ow ne r s hi p i n l oc a l c om m uni t i e s I t i s t he r e f or e c r i t i c a l i n a ny a t t e m p t t o i nvol ve l oc a l pe opl e i n r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt ; w he t he r i t i s P R A pol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m or C B N R M t he r e i s a c l e a r unde r s t a ndi ng of w ha t ow ne r s hi p i s a nd t ha t i t c on t r i but e s t o e f f e c t i ve m a na ge m e nt L a c ha pe l l e a nd M c C ool s ugge s t t ha t t he s uc c e s s of a na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt pr ogr a m be de t e r m i ne d by t he qua l i t y of ow ne r s hi p i t c r e a t e s A l e ns of ow ne r s hi p c oul d a l s o pr ovi de a us e f ul qua l i f i e r f o r t he or i e s a nd a ppr oa c he s t o na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt T he or i gi na l de f i ni t i on of ow ne r s hi p, o f l a nd a t a n y r a t e w a s ba s e d on t i t l e s H ow e ve r t he de f i n i t i on i s i nc r e a s i ngl y i nc l udi ng t he i de a of a r e s pons i bi l i t y ove r publ i c l a nd a nd ot he r na t ur a l r e s our c e s L a c ha pe l l e a nd M c C ool ha ve a t hr e e pr onge d de f i n i t i on of ow ne r s hi p t ha t w i de ns t he ne w e r c onc e pt ua l i d e a of ow ne r s hi p. T he f i r s t a r e a i n w hi c h ow ne r s hi p c a n be pr e s e nt i s t he pr oc e s s of c om m uni c a t i on. T hi s i nc l ude s t he f r a m i ng o f t he i s s ue s o t ha t c e r t a i n i ndi vi dua l s e i t h e r r e s pond pos i t i ve l y o r ne ga t i ve l y. C ons e que nt l y, ow ne r s hi p i n pr obl e m s i s de pe nde nt on how s i t ua t i ons a r e de f i ne d a nd unde r s t ood by di f f e r e nt i ndi v i dua l s 3 3 I f t he l oc a l p e opl e i nvol ve d de f i ne t he pr obl e m i n t he s a m e w a y a s t he a ge nc y t r yi ng t o w o r k w i t h t h e m t he l oc a l pe opl e w i l l be m or e i nc l i ne d t o ne got i a t e t he pr obl e m s ol vi ng m e t hods a nd r e a c h a m ut ua l unde r s t a ndi ng. T he s e c ond r e a l m of ow ne r s hi p l i e s i n t he a bi l i t y o f i ndi vi dua l s t o a f f e c t de c i s i on m a ki ng. T hi s i nvol ve s t he r e di s t r i but i on o f pow e r i nt o t he ha nds of l oc a l c om m uni t i e s 3 3 L a c h a p e l l e P a u l R S t e p h e n F M c C o o l 2 0 0 5 E x p l o r i n g t h e C o n c e p t o f O w n e r s h i p i n N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e P l a n n i n g S o c i e t y a n d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s V o l 1 8 2 7 9 2 8 5 2 8 1

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15 a nd i s of t e n e xt r e m e l y di f f i c ul t a s t he t he or e t i c a l a ppr oa c he s a bove ha ve c ove r e d. H ow e ve r w i t hout t hi s a s pe c t of ow ne r s hi p, m a ny pr ogr a m s w i l l s t a gna t e D i s t r i but i on of ow ne r s hi p i s t he l a s t c a t e gor y t ha t L a c ha pe l l e a nd M c C ool c ove r T hi s i nvol ve s w ho i s a f f e c t e d by t he de c i s i ons t ha t a r e m a de a nd how t he de c i s i ons a r e di s t r i but e d ( a nd a c c e pt e d) t h r oug h ho r i z ont a l a nd ve r t i c a l c onne c t i ons G e ne r a l l y, t he w i de r t he s e ns e of ow ne r s hi p, t he m o r e e f f e c t i ve a pr ogr a m w i l l be O w ne r s hi p c a n pr ovi de i ndi vi dua l or c om m una l ( de pe ndi ng on t he t ype of ow ne r s hi p) i nc e nt i ve s t o pr e s e r ve a nd i m pr ove r e s our c e s 3 4 N e w i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m pol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m P R A a nd de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y a l l pr e s e nt di f f e r e nt t a ke s on t he e f f o r t s ne e de d t o c r e a t e a nd m a i nt a i n f unc t i ona l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt pr og r a m s C B N R M i s a hi ghl y c om pl i c a t e d p r oc e s s t ha t c a n be ne f i t f r o m a l l t he l e ve l s of a na l ys i s pr e s e nt e d i n t hi s c ha pt e r f r om t he i ns t i t ut i ona l t o c om m uni t y a nd i ndi vi dua l pa r t i c i pa t i on. P ol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m a nd t he de s i gn pr i nc i pl e s c r e a t e d by i t s t he o r i s t s pr e s e nt a us e f ul l e ns t hr ough w hi c h t o a na l yz e B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr ogr a m a s t he y c a n hi ghl i gh t s pe c i f i c i s s ue s a nd i de nt i f y t he m os t c r i t i c a l obs t a c l e s t o t he c r e a t i on of a s uc c e s s f ul pr ogr a m P a r t i c i pa t i on, e s pe c i a l l y w i t h t he de l i be r a t i ve de m oc r a c y s e ns i t i vi t y, c oul d ha ve t he pow e r t o a l t e r c i t i z e n us e of t he pr ogr a m a nd i m pa r t a s e ns e of ow ne r s hi p t ha t i m pr ove s c onne c t i on t o C B N R M pr oj e c t s a c r os s t he c ount r y. 3 4 E x p l o r i n g t h e C o n c e p t o f O w n e r s h i p 2 8 2

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16 C h ap te r 2 C om mu n i t y B as e d C on s e r vat i on i n C on te xt B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr ogr a m ha s e vol ve d i n t he c ont e xt of a r e gi on w i de s hi f t i n t he c ons e r va t i on p a r a di gm R ur a l pe opl e i n s out he r n A f r i c a e xpe r i e nc e d a pr ot e c t i oni s t s ys t e m of f or t r e s s l i ke na t i ona l pa r ks dur i ng a nd di r e c t l y a f t e r c ol oni a l i s m t ha t ga ve c ons e r va t i on s ubt e xt s of m i s us e of pow e r a nd a l i e n a t i on f r om l a nd. T o unde r s t a nd t he s ubs t a nt i a l a t t i t udi na l a nd m e t hodol ogi c a l s w i ng t h a t C B N R M r e pr e s e nt s i n B ot s w a na i t i s ne c e s s a r y t o l ook a t t he b r oa de r hi s t or y of c ons e r va t i on i n t he r e gi on T h e G e n e r al T r e n d of C on s e r vat i on i n S ou t h e r n A f r i c a W he n G a r r e t t H a r di n w r ot e h i s hi ghl y i n f l ue nt i a l a r t i c l e i n 1968 a bout t he T r a ge dy of t he C om m ons he a nd e ve r yone e l s e w ho r e a d i t a nd a c t e d upon i t ne gl e c t e d t he c r uc i a l f a c t t ha t f e w s ys t e m s a r e t r ue ope n a c c e s s c om m ons M os t pr e c ol oni a l gove r na nc e s ys t e m s ha d r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt r e gul a t i ons bui l t i nt o t he m U nl e s s t he w i l dl i f e or r e s our c e s w e r e a bunda nt a nd f l our i s hi n g, t he c hi e f s ki ngs he a dm e n, a nd c ul t ur a l t a boos w or ke d t o m a i nt a i n a ba l a nc e be t w e e n na t ur e a nd hum a n ne e ds i n s out he r n A f r i c a

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17 I n m os t of t he c ount r i e s i n s out he r n A f r i c a s t r i n ge nt r ul e s c ove r e d w he n c e r t a i n a ni m a l s c oul d be hunt e d a nd w ho c oul d hunt t he m a nd w ha t l a nd c oul d be us e d. B e c a us e of t he l ow popul a t i on de ns i t i e s a nd nom a di c l i f e s t y l e s of m a ny g r oups t he s e c ul t ur a l r e gul a t i ons w e r e a de qua t e f or pr ot e c t i ng w i l dl i f e a nd ot he r na t u r a l r e s our c e s T he gr oups of s out he r n A f r i c a us e d a p r oc e s s of a da pt i ve m a n a ge m e nt a f l e xi bl e m e t hod o f us i ng na t ur a l r e s our c e s t ha t c ons i s t s of s m a l l s c a l e us e a nd c ont i nuous a dj us t m e nt s t o e ns ur e s us t a i na bi l i t y a nd t o de t e r m i ne how a nd how m u c h hum a n i nt e r ve nt i on t he l a nd c oul d ha ndl e M a ny C B N R M pr ogr a m s l a t e r a dopt e d a s ys t e m of a da pt i ve m a na ge m e nt t o i m pr ove i m pl e m e nt a t i on ove r t i m e A va r i e t y of s ys t e m s w e r e i n pl a c e a t t he t i m e of c ol oni a l i s m L a nd us e s t yl e s s uc h a s pa s t or a l i s m t r a di t i ona l a gr i c ul t ur a l p r a c t i c e s a nd gr ound pa t c h bur ni ng ke pt t he l a nd he a l t hy. S o m e c hi e f s c r e a t e d r oya l r e s e r ve s w he r e c om m on pe opl e c oul d not hunt O t he r s ys t e m s i nc l ude d c ul t ur a l t a boos a ga i ns t c e r t a i n f a m i l i e s ki l l i ng a t ype of a ni m a l r ul e s of w he n a ni m a l s pe c i e s c oul d be hunt e d, a nd t he hunt i ng o f l a r ge ga m e a ni m a l s be i ng r e s t r i c t e d t o t he c hi e f s or hunt e r s i n a gui l d W he n t he a r e a s of s out he r n A f r i c a w e r e c ol oni z e d, t he B r i t i s h, D ut c h a nd G e r m a n a d m i ni s t r a t i ons di d not t a ke a ny o f t he s e pr e vi ous s ys t e m s of c ons e r va t i on i nt o a c c ount C ol oni a l a dm i ni s t r a t i ons a nd w hi t e s e t t l e r s be ga n hunt i ng l a r ge ga m e on a n unp r e c e de nt e d s c a l e E l e pha nt s w e r e t he m os t t a r ge t e d, c or r e s pondi ng t o a n e no r m ous i nc r e a s e i n t he i vor y t r a de t ha t w a s s pur r e d on by bot h t he E u r ope a ns a nd l oc a l s t r yi ng t o m a ke m on e y. T he c ol oni a l pow e r s di s m i s s e d A f r i c a n m e t hods of a gr i c ul t ur e b r i ngi ng i n uns us t a i na bl e pr a c t i c e s a nd c r ow di ng m o r e a nd m or e A f r i c a ns ont o s m a l l e r po r t i ons of l a nd, w hi l e t he w hi t e s e t t l e r s s e t up l a r ge f a r m s C onf l i c t s ove r l a nd be c a m e i n t e ns e a s l oc a l popul a t i ons gr e w w i t h a boom i n c a t t l e

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18 r a nc hi ng a nd s t r i c t r e gul a t i ons a ga i ns t hunt i ng f or s ubs i s t e n c e w e r e put i n p l a c e T he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt s of t e n b r oke dow n t r a di t i ona l s ys t e m s of c ont r ol ove r w i l dl i f e a nd di d not r e pl a c e t he m e f f e c t i ve l y B y t he 1920s t he ne e d f or p r ot e c t i ons ove r w i l d l i f e w a s obvi ous 3 5 A f f e c t e d by i m a ge s a nd i de a s of w i l de r ne s s a r e a s of pr i s t i ne uni nha bi t e d na t ur e c ol oni a l a dm i ni s t r a t i ons ( a nd t he i r hom e c ount r i e s ) pus he d a pr e s e r va t i o ni s t a ge nda A dm i ni s t r a t i ons a l l ove r s out he r n A f r i c a c r e a t e d na t i ona l pa r k s ys t e m s a nd r e m ove d l oc a l pe opl e f r om w i t hi n t he m I t w a s pr i m a r i l y t he poo r bot h A f r i c a n a nd s e t t l e r w ho s uf f e r e d f r om t he s e r e l oc a t i ons T he f i ne s a nd f e nc e s t ha t t he c ol oni a l gove r nm e nt s us e d t o pr ot e c t w i l dl i f e w e r e s uc c e s s f ul t o a c e r t a i n e xt e nt a t s a vi ng l a r ge ga m e f r om t he br i nk of e xt i nc t i on, but t he y w e r e n ot ( a nd a r e not ) s us t a i na bl e m e t hods of c ont r ol a nd a r e hi ghl y de t r i m e nt a l t o t he l i ve s of p e opl e l i vi ng i n w i l dl i f e r i c h a r e a s H ow e ve r f ue l e d by H a r di n s a r gum e nt a ga i ns t c o m m una l c ont r ol ( or l a c k t he r e of ) o f r e s our c e s t op dow n pr a c t i c e s of c ons e r va t i on c ont i nue d w e l l i nt o t he pos t i nde pe nde nc e pe r i ods i n s out he r n A f r i c a n c ount r i e s 3 6 C ount r i e s l i ke B ot s w a na Z i m ba bw e a nd S out h A f r i c a c ont i nue d w i t h a s ys t e m of na t i ona l pa r ks a nd, i n t he c a s e of B ot s w a na r e l oc a t i on. T he e nvi r onm e nt a l de pa r t m e nt s a nd a dm i ni s t r a t i ons w e r e s m a l l a nd l a c ki ng i n t he r e s our c e s ne e de d t o c ha nge m e t hods of c ons e r va t i on. C ha nge s i n i de ol og y, how e ve r w e r e be gi nni ng t o e m e r ge i n t he 1960s a nd 1970s e s pe c i a l l y i n Z i m ba bw e t he f r ont r unne r o f c om m uni t y ba s e d na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt I t w a s i nc r e a s i ngl y c l e a r t ha t c e nt r a l i z e d, t op dow n c ons e r va t i on w a s bot h 3 5 F a b r i c i u s C h r i s t o R i g h t s r e s o u r c e s a n d r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t : c o m m u n i t y b a s e d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a 2 0 0 4 L o n d o n : E a r t h s c a n 4 0 3 6 R i g h t s R e s o u r c e s a n d R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t 3 5

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19 i ne f f e c t i ve a nd a nt a goni z i ng. O n l y i n t he 1980s a n d 1990s di d p r a c t i c e s be gi n t o c a t c h up w i t h t he or y. T he C B N R M r e vol ut i on s t a r t e d i n Z i m ba bw e a nd s pr e a d a l l ove r s out he r n A f r i c a I t i s ba s e d on t he i de a t ha t t he pr e vi ous pol i c y of e xc l udi ng pe opl e f r o m c ons e r va t i on i s unne c e s s a r y a nd t ha t c ons e r va t i on c a n be us e d a s a r ur a l de ve l opm e nt t ool I n t he or y t he m os t r e a s ona bl e w a y t o c ons e r ve i s t o g i ve l oc a l p e opl e ne a r w i l dl i f e r e s e r ve s i nc e nt i ve s t o do s o, t hr ough e c onom i c be ne f i t s a nd pub l i c pa r t i c i pa t i on. A pol i c y t ha t i nc l ude s a nd be n e f i t s pe opl e s houl d c os t l e s s s i nc e t he l a r ge a m ount s of m one y us e d ( us ua l l y i ne f f e c t i ve l y) t o s t op poa c hi ng w oul d no l onge r be ne e de d a nd t he p r oc e e ds f r om c ons e r va t i on be ne f i t s ( m a i nl y r e gul a t e d hunt i ng a nd phot ogr a phi c s a f a r i s ) c oul d go t ow a r ds de ve l op m e nt pr oj e c t s Z i m ba bw e s c ons e r va t i oni s t s pr opos e d a m e t hod of a da pt i ve m a na ge m e nt t ha t s ugge s t e d a s l ow pr oc e s s of de ve l opi ng s m a l l s c a l e c om m uni t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m s t ha t w ou l d be c ont i nuous l y r e e va l ua t e d, ke e pi ng onl y t hos e m e t hods t ha t p r ove d f u nc t i ona l 3 7 H a ndi ng ove r c ont r ol of w i l dl i f e t o l oc a l pe opl e ha s not gone a s s m oot hl y a s t he t he or y w oul d s ugge s t P e r ve r s e i nc e nt i ve s i na de qu a t e t r a i ni ng, l a c k of m oni t o r i ng, c or r upt gove r nm e nt s a nd e c onom i c s t a gna t i on ha v e a l l pl a gue d C B N R M pr oj e c t s Z i m ba bw e s m uc h l a ude d C om m una l A r e a s M a na ge m e nt P r ogr a m m e f or I ndi ge nous R e s our c e s ( C A M F I R E ) f or i ns t a nc e s uf f e r s f r om c or r upt l oc a l go ve r nm e nt o f f i c i a l s w i t hhol di ng C A M P F I R E f unds 3 8 M a ny pr ogr a m s a r e a l s o ha m pe r e d by a n i ns uf f i c i e nt unde r s t a ndi ng of t he m a ke up of c om m uni t i e s l e a d i ng t o s om e di s a dva nt a ge d a nd m a r gi na l i z e d gr oups 3 7 R o s a l e e n D u f f y K i l l i n g f o r C o n s e r v a t i o n 2 0 0 0 T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e 3 8 I v a n B o n d a n d P e t e r F r o s t T h e C A M P F I R E p r o g r a m i n Z i m b a b w e : P a y m e n t s f o r W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e s E c o l o g i c a l E c o n o m i c s 6 5 2 0 0 8 7 7 6 7 8 7 7 8 0

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20 R e ga r dl e s s of t he t e c hni c a l di f f i c ul t i e s a nd c a pa c i t y i s s ue s e xpe r i e nc e d by C A M P F I R E pr oj e c t s t he i de ol ogy a nd s om e m e t h ods of Z i m ba bw e s pr ogr a m ha ve i nf l ue nc e d ot he r p r ogr a m s i n t he r e gi on C om m uni t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i on s t r a t e gi e s i n t he r e gi on ( a nd o t he r a r e a s i n A f r i c a ) r a nge f r om s i m pl e pr of i t s ha r i ng s c he m e s t o l i m i t e d pa r t i c i pa t i on t o f ul l bl ow n c om m uni t y m a na ge m e nt M a ny pr og r a m s s t a r t w i t h t he goa l of f ul l c om m uni t y m a na ge m e nt but ul t i m a t e l y s t a l l be f or e t r a ns f e r r i ng m e a ni ngf ul pow e r B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr ogr a m s ubs c r i be s i n s om e r e s pe c t s t o t he pr a c t i c e of a da pt i ve m a na ge m e nt a nd c e r t a i nl y t o t he pow e r o f e c onom i c i nc e nt i ve s a s a m e t hod of c ons e r va t i on. O ve r vi e w of B ot s w an a s C on s e r vat i on H i s t or y B ot s w a na i s a l a r ge a nd s pa r s e l y i nha bi t e d c ount r y E ve n now t he popul a t i on f or a c ount r y r ough l y t he s i z e of F r a nc e i s 1. 8 m i l l i on pe opl e C ons e que nt l y, c ons e r va t i on of na t ur a l r e s our c e s w hi l e c e r t a i n l y i m po r t a nt i s not a t t he c r i t i c a l s t a ge i n w hi c h m a ny c ount r i e s f i nd t he m s e l ve s B ot s w a na s t i l l pos s e s s e s s om e of t he m os t pr i s t i ne na t ur a l e nvi r onm e nt s i n t he w o r l d. T hi s a bunda nc e o f na t u r a l r e s our c e s i s due t o a va r i e t y of f a c t or s be yond t he l ow popul a t i on de ns i t y, f r om t r a di t i ona l s ys t e m s of r e gul a t i on t o r e l a t i ve l y l i t t l e c ol oni a l i m pa c t t o t he pol i c i e s of t h e pos t i nde pe nde nc e gove r nm e nt T he C hi e f s ys t e m of t he e i ght T s w a na t r i be s ( w hi c h m a ke up a bout 80% of t he popul a t i on) f unc t i ons t hr ough k got l as w hi c h a r e c om m uni t y w i de m e e t i ngs a t t e nde d m a i nl y by ol de r m e n, w he r e t he C hi e f di s c us s e s i s s ue s w i t h hi s a dvi s or s a nd m e m be r s of t he c om m uni t y c a n b r i ng c om pl a i nt s I n t he pa s t k got l a m e e t i ngs a l s o de t e r m i ne d l a nd us e a nd m a na ge m e nt e ns ur i ng t ha t t he r e w a s r e gu l a t i on of i n t e r a c t i ons be t w e e n hum a ns

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21 a nd w i l dl i f e N ow l a nd a l l oc a t i on i s de t e r m i ne d b y L a nd B oa r ds 3 9 T he C hi e f a nd he a dm e n m os t l y de t e r m i ne a ge nda s a nd de c i s i ons be f or e pr e s e nt i ng t he m t o t he r e s t of t he vi l l a ge 4 0 T he B a t s w a na 4 1 a l s o ha d c ul t ur a l t a boos a ga i ns t hunt i ng f a m i l y t ot e m a ni m a l s t o ke e p one t ype of a ni m a l f r o m be i ng ove r hunt e d. T he S a n 4 2 pe opl e o f B ot s w a na w e r e ( a nd s t i l l a r e a l t hough i n f e w e r a n d f e w e r c a s e s ) nom a di c hunt e r ga t he r e r s w ho ha d a uni que a nd f l e xi bl e w a y of de a l i ng w i t h B ot s w a na s e c os ys t e m s t ha t ke pt t he m f r om bu r de ni ng t he l a nd. T he s hi f t i n t o c ol oni z a t i on w a s not a s s udde n or d i s r upt i ve i n B ot s w a na a s i t w a s i n m a ny ot he r A f r i c a n c ount r i e s T he B a t s w a na a c t ua l l y r e que s t e d t ha t t he B r i t i s h m a ke B ot s w a na a P r ot e c t or a t e of t he e m pi r e t o p r ot e c t i t f r om t he B oe r s i n S ou t h A f r i c a T he B r i t i s h a gr e e d, but f i ndi ng B ot s w a na t o be vi r t ua l l y w or t hl e s s t o t he m ( i t w a s onl y a f t e r I nde pe nde nc e t ha t di a m onds w e r e di s c ove r e d) t he y s pe nt l i t t l e t i m e t r y i ng t o s ubdue or c ont r ol t he t r a di t i ona l s ys t e m s of gove r na nc e B ot s w a na w hi l e a t t r a c t i ng s om e e x pa t r i ot s di d not e xpe r i e nc e t he f l ood of s e t t l e r s a nd t he di f f i c ul t i e s t ha t a c c om pa ni e d t he m t o t he s a m e e xt e nt a s Z i m ba bw e o r S out h A f r i c a A f t e r i nde pe nde nc e i n 1966 how e ve r B ot s w a na s l e a de r s w e r e hi ghl y i n f l ue nc e d by t he B r i t i s h a nd c r e a t e d a B r i t i s h s t yl e pa r l i a m e nt a r y gove r nm e nt W he n di a m onds w e r e di s c ove r e d P r e s i de nt S i r S e r e t s e K ha m a ne got i a t e d a f a vor a bl e de a l w i t h D e B e e r s a nd t he di a m ond w e a l t h ha s be e n us e d f or de ve l opm e nt p r oj e c t s f r e e he a l t h c a r e a nd i m p r ove d r oa ds I n t e r m s of c ons e r va t i on, how e ve r t he B a t s w a na l e a de r s hi p i n t he 1960s a nd 1970s f ol l ow e d t he W e s t e r n 3 9 D i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l b e l o w a n d i n C h a p t e r 3 4 0 L a r r y A S w a t u k F r o m P r o j e c t t o C o n t e x t : C o m m u n i t y B a s e d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t i n B o t s w a n a 2 0 0 5 G l o b a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l P o l i t i c s V o l 5 ( 3 ) 9 5 1 2 4 1 0 3 4 1 B a t s w a n a i s t h e p l u r a l f o r m o f m o t s w a n a w h i c h m e a n s a p e r s o n f r o m B o t s w a n a 4 2 T h e r e i s n o a g r e e d u p o n w a y t o c o l l e c t i v e l y r e f e r t o t h e n o m a d i c g r o u p s i n B o t s w a n a S a n B a s a w r a a n d B u s h m a n a l l h a v e s o m e u n a v o i d a b l e c o n n o t a t i o n s I h a v e c h o s e n t o u s e S a n a s i t i s t h e t e r m p r e f e r r e d i n a c a d e m i c c i r c l e s B a s a w r a h o w e v e r i s t h e o f f i c i a l t e r m u s e d b y B o t s w a n a s g o v e r n m e n t

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22 pr ot e c t i oni s t a ge nda put t i ng 18% of t he c ount r y s l a nd i nt o na t i ona l pa r ks 4 3 T he S a n w e r e t he m os t ne ga t i ve l y a f f e c t e d by t he s e a c t i ons a s t he y w e r e t he pr i m a r y g r oup r e l oc a t e d f r om t he pa r ks F or c e d r e l oc a t i ons a r e s t i l l ha ppe ni ng t oda y f r om t he C e nt r a l K a l a ha r i G a m e R e s e r ve T he S a n a r e l os i ng t he i r l i ve l i hoods c ul t ur a l p r a c t i c e s a nd a bi l i t y t o hun t N ot onl y di d t he gove r nm e nt f ol l ow a p r ot e c t i oni s t e xc l us i ve c ons e r va t i on pol i c y, but t he t ou r i s m i ndus t r y w a s a l s o bui l t a r ound hi gh e nd, f or e i gn ow ne d a nd ope r a t e d c om pa ni e s S a f a r i s i n B ot s w a na c a n c os t ove r a t h ous a nd dol l a r s a ni ght but m os t of t ha t w e a l t h i s f unne l e d out of t he c ount r y B ot s w a na s t our i s m s e c t or ha s a l s o be e n c ha r a c t e r i z e d by e nc l a ve t our i s m w hi c h i s t our i s m t ha t t a ke s pl a c e i n r e m ot e a r e a s di s t a nt f r om a ny c om m uni t i e s a nd be ne f i t s onl y a s m a l l num be r of pe opl e T our i s t s m a i nl y E ur ope a n a nd A m e r i c a n, f l y i nt o G a bor one or M a un a nd a r e i m m e di a t e l y f l ow n out t o c om pl e t e l y r e m ove d a r e a s i n t he O ka va ngo D e l t a or t he K a l a ha r i w he r e t he y w i l l m e e t no B a t s w a na be yond t he i r gui de s a nd l e a r n a bout not hi ng but e l e pha nt s a nd l i ons T he e xc l us i ve ne s s a nd e xpe ns e of B ot s w a na s t our i s m i ndus t r y ha s he l pe d pr ot e c t t he na t ur a l be a ut y of t he D e l t a a nd de s e r t t o s om e e xt e nt but i t ha s a l s o c os t t he B a t s w a na a c c e s s t o t he na t ur a l be a ut y of t he i r c ount r y a nd m a ny of t he be ne f i t s t o be ha d f r om r unni ng s a f a r i ope r a t i ons t he m s e l ve s E nc l a ve t ou r i s m a l s o f a i l s t o p r om ot e a gr i c ul t u r e o r ot he r a c t i vi t i e s i n s ur r oundi ng a r e a s 4 4 A n e f f or t t o i nc r e a s e r ur a l de ve l opm e nt a nd m a ke t our i s m m or e c ul t u r a l l y s us t a i na bl e be ga n i n t he l a t e 1980s w i t h t he e m e r g e nc e of i nd i vi dua l C B N R M pr oj e c t s m a i nl y i n t he N or t h T he U ni t e d S t a t e s A ge nc y f or I nt e r na t i ona l D e ve l opm e nt ( U S A I D ) 4 3 R i g h t s R e s o u r c e s a n d R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t 2 3 4 4 J E M b a i w a T o u r i s m a n d t h e E n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e O k a v a n g o D e l t a B o t s w a n a 2 0 0 6 G a b o r o n e : P u l a P r e s s 9 9

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23 w a s or i gi na l l y t he m a j o r s our c e o f f undi ng a nd e xp e r t i s e be hi nd C B N R M w hi l e B ot s w a na s D e pa r t m e nt of W i l dl i f e a nd N a t i ona l P a r ks ( D W N P ) w a s i n c ha r ge of c oor di na t i ng t he va r i ous pr oj e c t s T he I n t e r na t i ona l U ni on f o r C ons e r va t i on o f N a t ur e ( I U C N ) c ont i nue s t o s uppor t C B N R M i n B ot s w a na on a gl oba l l e ve l a nd f unds a l a r ge num be r of r e s e a r c h s t udi e s a nd pe r i odi c e va l ua t i on s T he D e pa r t m e nt of E nvi r onm e nt a l A f f a i r s ( D E A ) t he M i ni s t r y of T our i s m t he B ot s w a na T our i s m B oa r d a nd t he R ur a l D e ve l opm e nt C oor di na t i ng D i vi s i on, a r e a l s o l oos e l y i nvol ve d w i t h t he pr og r a m but t he m a j or i t y of t he w o r k f a l l s on t he D N W P a nd i t s C o m m uni t y E x t e ns i on a nd O ut r e a c h D i vi s i on. T he pr e vi ous l a c k of a na t i ona l ove r a r c hi ng pol i c y a nd gove r nm e nt i nvol ve m e nt a nd i nt e r e s t ha s be e n a pr obl e m f or C B N R M U S A I D pul l e d out of t he pr ogr a m i n 1995, c l a i m i ng t ha t t he gove r nm e nt r e f us e d t o de vol ve pow e r t o t he vi l l a ge s but t he gove r nm e nt s unw i l l i ngne s s t o dr a f t a nd pa s s a na t i ona l C B N R M pol i c y c oul d ha ve c ont r i but e d t o t he w i t hdr a w a l of U S A I D a i d T he a bs e nc e of a na t i ona l pol i c y ha s a l s o c a us e d a c onf us i on of l e gi s l a t i on a f f e c t i ng bot h t he pr oj e c t s a nd t he m i ni s t r i e s t ha t de a l w i t h C B N R M N ow a na t i ona l pol i c y ha s be e n pa s s e d, but i t r e m a i ns c ont r ove r s i a l B e f or e t he na t i ona l pol i c y w a s pa s s e d i n 2006, i nt e r na t i ona l a c t or s ( I U C N G l oba l E nvi r onm e nt F a c i l i t y, a nd a N e t he r l a nds N G O ) he l pe d c r e a t e t w o na t i ona l or ga ni z a t i ons t o pr ovi de i nf or m a t i on a nd i nc r e a s e d c oor di na t i on t o t he C B N R M pr oj e c t s I n 1999, t he N a t i ona l C B N R M F or um c a m e i nt o e xi s t e nc e T he I U C N c ount r y of f i c e a c t e d a s i t s s e c r e t a r i a t unt i l J ul y 2007 w he n I U C N r e l oc a t e d t o S out h A f r i c a a nd t he K a l a ha r i C ons e r va t i on S oc i e t y t ook ove r t he pos i t i on 4 5 T he B ot s w a na C om m uni t y B a s e d O r ga ni z a t i on N e t w or k ( B O C O B O N E T ) w a s a l s o f unde d by I U C N a nd i t c e nt r a l i z e s a l l of 4 5 K a l a h a r i C o n s e r v a t i o n S o c i e t y w e b s i t e h t t p : / / w w w k c s o r g b w / A b o u t B a c k g r o u n d

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24 t he doc um e nt a t i on on C B N R M a nd a c t s a t t he gov e r nm e nt a l l e ve l a s a n a dvoc a t e f o r C B N R M I n a ddi t i on t o t he 18% o f l a n d de di c a t e d t o na t i ona l pa r ks B ot s w a na ha s 21% o f i t s l a nd i n na t i ona l m onum e nt s ga m e r e s e r ve s a nd t he W i l dl i f e M a na ge m e nt A r e a s ( W M A s ) t ha t m a ke up t he phys i c a l f ounda t i on of C B N R M T he gove r nm e nt ha s a l s o di vi de d t he l a nd i nt o 163 C ont r ol l e d H unt i ng A r e a s ( C H A s ) t ha t ove r l a p t he ot he r l a nd de s i gna t i ons C om m uni t i e s i n t he s e a r e a s c a n f or m C om m uni t y B a s e d O r ga ni z a t i ons ( C B O s ) I n o r de r t o be c om e a l e ga l l y r e c ogni z e d T r us t a nd be a bl e t o l e a s e C B N R M l a nd f or t r ophy hunt i ng or non c ons um pt i ve t ou r i s m a C B O m us t ha ve a n a ppr ove d c ons t i t ut i on a nd L a nd U s e M a na ge m e nt P l a n. T he a ppr opr i a t e L a nd A ut hor i t y a l l oc a t e s t he l a nd. I n m os t c a s e s t he a pp r opr i a t e L a nd A ut h or i t i e s a r e L a nd B oa r ds t ha t w e r e e s t a bl i s he d s hor t l y a f t e r i nde pe nde nc e t o t a ke ove r l a nd a l l oc a t i on dut i e s f r om t he C hi e f s T he r e a r e e l e ve n L a nd B oa r ds e i ght ba s e d on t he r e gi ons of t he e i ght T s w a na t r i be s a nd t hr e e pl a c e d i n r e gi ons c ont r ol l e d by ot he r e t hni c g r oups A f t e r obt a i ni ng a l e a s e t he e s t a bl i s he d T r us t c a n de c i de t o s ubl e a s e t he l a nd t o a n e xt e r na l s a f a r i ope r a t i on t hr ough a J oi nt V e nt ur e P a r t ne r s hi p ( J V P ) o r m a na ge t he l a n d i t s e l f C H A s out s i de of W M A s c a n be us e d f or l i m i t e d l i ve s t oc k p r oduc t i on ( a s t he y a r e m ul t i pur pos e ) but m os t a r e a s a r e l e a s e d f or w i l dl i f e m a na ge m e nt t ou r i s m a c t i vi t i e s a nd pr oduc t i on of ve l d r e s our c e s T he m a j or i t y of e s t a bl i s he d T r us t s i n B ot s w a na ha ve c h os e n t o e nt e r J V P s a nd s ubl e a s e t he l a nd. T he l e a s e s do not c onf e r ul t i m a t e a ut ho r i t y o nt o t he C B O s t hough. T he gove r n m e nt m a i nt a i ns t he r i ght t o r e voke t he l e a s e a t a ny t i m e e i t he r be c a us e of m i s c onduc t on t he pa r t of t he C B O or t o de ve l op s om e t hi ng of gr e a t e r be ne f i t t o t he c om m uni t y. 4 6 4 6 F r o m P r o j e c t t o C o n t e x t 1 0 5

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25 I n m os t of t he C B O s a l l pe r s ons ove r e i ght e e n t ha t ha ve l i ve d i n t he a r e a f or f i ve ye a r s a r e a ut om a t i c a l l y m e m be r s T he m e m be r s of a C B O e l e c t a B oa r d o f T r us t e e s t o r e pr e s e nt a nd m a ke de c i s i ons on be ha l f o f t he c om m uni t y. U s ua l l y, t he B oa r d of T r us t e e s ha s t e n m e m be r s t ha t c a n be r e e l e c t e d e ve r y t h r e e ye a r s M a ny c ons t i t ut i ons do not r e s t r i c t t he num be r of t e r m s a B oa r d m e m be r c a n s e r ve C B O m e m be r s t e nd t o e l e c t younge r m e m be r s of t he c om m uni t y ( t w e nt y one t o f or t y ye a r s of a ge ) t o s e r ve on t he B oa r ds pr oba bl y be c a us e of t he i r hi ghe r l e ve l s of e duc a t i on. M os t B oa r ds of T r us t e e s m e e t s e ve r a l t i m e s a ye a r a nd a r e pa i d a s i t t i ng a l l o w a nc e V e r y f e w r e qui r e m e nt s be yond ba s i c l i t e r a c y a nd c om m uni t y m e m be r s hi p a r e ne c e s s a r y f or B oa r d m e m be r s a t t hi s t i m e T e c hni c a l A dvi s or y C om m i t t e e s ( T A C s ) t ha t a r e c om pos e d of of f i c i a l s f r om m ul t i pl e gove r nm e nt of f i c e s c oor di na t e d by t he D W N P a nd t he D i s t r i c t A dm i ni s t r a t i on p r ovi de t e c hni c a l a s s i s t a n c e a nd a dvi c e t o B oa r ds a nd C B O s t hr e e t i m e s a ye a r on a ve r a ge 4 7 A pr oj e c t m a na ge r s houl d be e m pl oye d unde r t he B o a r d of T r us t e e s t o r un t he da y t o da y ope r a t i ons of t he C B N R M pr oj e c t T he W M A s a n d C H A s w e r e de l i ne a t e d ba s e d on a l ong hi s t or y o f c onf l i c t e d e t hni c a l l y a nd c l a s s di vi de d l a nd r i gh t s a nd pol i t i c s T he di s c ove r y of di a m onds e nha nc e d a s ys t e m t ha t de pe nde d on t he r ul e of a s m a l l e l i t e de s pi t e t he s ha r i ng of w e a l t h i n t he f or m o f he a l t h c a r e r oa ds a nd e duc a t i on. T he num be r of c a t t l e ow ne d by t he e l i t e c ont i nue d t o i nc r e a s e a nd w e a l t hy c a t t l e r a nc he r s w ho ge ne r a l l y l i ve d i n ur ba n a r e a s i nc r e a s e d t he num be r of bor e hol e s m ovi ng t he i r c a t t l e f a r t he r a nd f a r t he r i n t o t he bus h a nd c om m una l l a nds T r i ba l gr a z i ng l a nd 4 8 w a s br ok e n i nt o c om m e r c i a l c om m una l a nd r e s e r ve d a r e a s C om m e r c i a l l a nd w a s l e a s e d f or r a nc h de ve l opm e nt m a i nl y t o t he e l i t e 4 7 C B N R M N a t i o n a l P o l i c y 2 4 8 O n l y t h e e i g h t m a j o r t r i b e s o f B o t s w a n a h a v e o f f i c i a l p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n T h e S a n a n d o t h e r t r i b e s t h a t m a k e u p B o t s w a n a s p o p u l a t i o n a r e u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d i n g o v e r n m e n t a n d c a n n o t o w n c o m m u n a l l a n d s

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26 C om m una l l a nd i nc l ude d t r a di t i ona l c om m on pr op e r t y a nd w a s a l s o us e d by t he e l i t e c r e a t i ng a s i t u a t i on t ha t e xc l ude d l e s s w e a l t hy m e m be r s of s oc i e t y f r om g r a z i ng l a nd, r a t he r t ha n c u r t a i l i ng t he de s t r uc t i ve a c t i ons of t he bi g r a nc he s T he i ne f f e c t i ve ne s s of t hi s m e a s ur e w a s i nc r e a s e d by t he f a c t t ha t a ny bor e hol e s c r e a t e d w e r e pr i va t e l y ow ne d, a s w a s t he l a nd a r ound t he m a l l ow i ng t he r i c h t o e nc r oa c h ont o c om m una l l a nd. I n f a c t t he gove r nm e nt e nc our a ge d t he pr i va t i z a t i on of c o m m una l l a nd, e ve r i nc r e a s i ng t he s oc i o e c onom i c di s pa r i t y. 4 9 C ons e que nt l y, t he l a nd boa r ds ha ve c om e unde r t he c ont r ol of l oc a l pow e r hous e s a nd he i ght e ne d t he i ne qua l i t y of l a nd a l l oc a t i on a nd us e P e opl e w ho a r e not m e m be r s of t he m a j or t r i be s l i ke t he S a n, a r e a l m os t ne ve r gi ve n l a nd by t he s e boa r ds T he r e s e r ve d a r e a s a r e now W M A s a nd C B N R M a r e a s s uppos e dl y r i ght i ng t he i m ba l a nc e i n l a nd a l l oc a t i on by p r ovi di ng oppo r t uni t i e s t o m o r e m a r gi na l i z e d gr oups B e yond t he c onf l i c t s ove r l a nd t ha t c ont i nue i n m a ny of t he W M A s a nd c om m una l l a nds C B N R M ha s f a c e d f i na nc i a l a nd t e c hni c a l di f f i c ul t i e s ove r t he t w o de c a de s s i nc e i t s i nc e pt i on. T he N or t he r n pr oj e c t s e s pe c i a l l y t hos e i n t he O ka va ngo D e l t a m a ke a g r e a t de a l of pr o f i t e ve r y ye a r but s u f f e r he a vi l y f r om e m be z z l e m e nt a nd m i s us e d f unds I n m a ny c a s e s young S a n i n t he N or t h r un t he T r us t s or C B O s s i nc e t he y m a ke up a s i gni f i c a n t pot i on o f t he r ur a l popul a t i o n a nd a r e t a r ge t e d f o r s pe c i a l e duc a t i on pr ogr a m s by t he gove r nm e nt but t he y a r e not s c hool e d bus i ne s s pr a c t i c e a nd t ha t i s l e a di ng t o s om e i r r e s pons i bl e m one y m a na gi ng. 5 0 O t he r pr oj e c t s f a i l t o m a ke a ny m one y a t a l l T he K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y, a w e l l r un, pr ope r l y s t a f f e d a nd t r a i ne d C B N R M pr oj e c t j us t b r oke e ve n f or t he f i r s t t i m e l a s t ye a r 5 1 T he c e nt r a l gove r n m e nt ha s 4 9 P a u l i n e E P e t e r s D i v i d i n g t h e C o m m o n s : P o l i t i c s P o l i c y a n d C u l t u r e i n B o t s w a n a 1 9 9 4 U n i v e r s i t y o f V i g i n i a P r e s s 2 5 0 S A D C N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s M a n a g e m e n t P r o j e c t O f f i c i a l I n t e r v i e w 5 1 K h a m a R h i n o S a n c t u a r y M a n a g e r I n t e r v i e w

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27 r e s ponde d t o t he pr ob l e m s of C B N R M w i t h a na t i ona l pol i c y t ha t c oul d pot e nt i a l l y e l i m i na t e t he c onne c t i on be t w e e n t he i ndi vi dua l p r oj e c t s a nd t he i r e c onom i c be ne f i t s by put t i ng m os t of t he p r of i t s i n t o a na t i ona l f und T h e na t i ona l f und t ha t t he ne w C B N R M pol i c y i s c r e a t i ng w i l l be c om pos e d of 65% of t he pr of i t s f r om hunt i ng quot a s ( t he s our c e of t he m a j o r i t y o f m one y i n t he pr ogr a m ) a nd w i l l be a va i l a bl e t o a l l of t he pr oj e c t s i n B ot s w a na 5 2 B ot s w a na s r e s our c e s ha ve be e n m a na ge d by t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt t o pr ovi de t o s om e e xt e nt be ne f i t s t o m os t of t he c o unt r y. T hus c e nt r a l i z i ng c ont r ol of r e s our c e s a nd t h e n s pr e a di ng t he be ne f i t s t o ot he r s i s t he na t ur a l r e s pons e of t he gove r nm e nt I t m a y be t ha t t he ne w pol i c y w i l l f un c t i on be t t e r w i t hi n B ot s w a na s c ul t ur a l nor m s but c ons i de r i ng t he pol i t i c a l hi s t or y of s upp r e s s i on of di f f e r e nc e s a nd e l i t e r ul e i n B ot s w a na i t i s que s t i ona bl e w he t he r C B N R M s houl d m ove dow n t he pa t h o f c e nt r a l c ont r ol A s of 2006, t he r e a r e ni ne t y one r e gi s t e r e d T r us t s i n B ot s w a na m os t of w hi c h s t a r t e d i n t he 1990s T he s e ni ne t y one C B O s c ove r e d one hundr e d a nd f i f t y vi l l a ge s a nd m or e t ha n a hundr e d a nd t hi r t y f i ve t hous a nd pe op l e 5 3 H ow e ve r onl y a r o und 35 C B O s a r e i m pl e m e nt i ng C B N R M pr ogr a m s a nd e ve n f e w e r t ha n t ha t a r e m a ki ng a pr o f i t 5 4 T he a c c e pt a nc e of t he pr ogr a m i s pr om i s i ng but t he i m pl e m e nt a t i on i s pr ovi ng di f f i c ul t T w o I l l u s t r at i o n s A br i e f l ook a t t w o of B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr oj e c t s i l l um i na t e s s om e of t he obs t a c l e s of i m pl e m e nt a t i on. T he t w o pr oj e c t s out l i ne d be l ow t he K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y a nd t he 5 2 C B N R M N a t i o n a l P o l i c y 3 5 3 S e e a p p e n d i x 5 4 C B N R M S t a t u s R e p o r t 4 3

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28 N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y, a r e not l a r ge m one y m a ki ng ope r a t i ons l i ke s om e of t he C B O s i n t he N or t h, but r a t he r s m a l l c i t i z e n e f f o r t s t o p r e s e r ve c e r t a i n w i l dl i f e a nd e nvi r on m e nt a l r e s our c e s K h am a R h i n o S a n c t u ar y T he K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y i s l oc a t e d i n t he c e nt r a l r e gi on o f B ot s w a na r i ght out s i de of t he vi l l a ge of S e r ow e on t he S e r w e P a n. T he K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y T r us t i s t he R e gi s t e r e d A c c ount a bl e L e ga l E nt i t y ( R A L E ) of t he C B O t ha t e nc om pa s s e s t he vi l l a ge s of S e r ow e P a j e a nd M a be l e a podi I n 198 9, w he n t he i de a of a s a nc t ua r y i n t he P a n w a s c onc e i ve d, t he a r e a w a s a c a t t l e pos t but i t w a s he a vi l y i nunda t e d w i t h w i l dl i f e R e s i de nt s of S e r ow e j oi ne d t oge t he r t o c r e a t e t he S a nc t ua r y a nd ul t i m a t e l y t he N gw a t o L a nd B oa r d a l l oc a t e d t he l a nd t o t he T r us t i n 1993. T he T r us t p r ovi de d c om pe ns a t i on f o r t he one f a r m e r di s pl a c e d f r o m t he a r e a by gi vi ng h i m a bor e hol e a nd f a r m ne a r by T he S e r w e P a n i s a n e xc e l l e nt ha bi t a t f o r r hi nos s o w h e n t he l a nd w a s a l l oc a t e d t o t he T r us t f our R hi nos f r om t he C hobe di s t r i c t ( t he no r t he r n m os t s e c t i on of B ot s w a na ) w e r e t r a ns f e r r e d t o t he S a nc t ua r y W he n t h e S a nc t ua r y w a s f e nc e d i n 1995, S out h A f r i c a dona t e d f i ve m or e r hi nos S i nc e t he n t he S a nc t ua r y ha s e s t a bl i s he d i t s e l f a s a n e f f e c t i ve r e i nt r oduc t i on a r e a f or bot h b l a c k a nd w hi t e r hi nos a nd ha s be e n ve r y s uc c e s s f ul a t pr e s e r vi ng t he w i l dl i f e of t he a r e a S c i e nt i s t s of t e n a s k t o do r e s e a r c h i n t he S a nc t ua r y a nd t he r e w a s one s t a t i one d t he r e i n 2007 T he B ot s w a na D e f e ns e F or c e i s l oc a t e d ne a r by, a va i l a bl e f o r a nt i poa c hi ng m e a s ur e s i f ne c e s s a r y, but t he S a nc t ua r y ha s a pos i t i ve r e l a t i ons hi p w i t h t he s ur r oun di ng c om m un i t i e s I n t e r m s o f s oc i a l good t he S a nc t ua r y pr ov i de s e xt e ns i ve t r a i ni ng f or i t s gui de s bot h i n B ot s w a na a nd a br oa d. O ne of t he gui de s i n 2007 r e c e i ve d a n a l l e xpe ns e s pa i d

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29 i nt e r ns hi p a t D i s ne y f o r c us t om e r s e r vi c e t r a i ni ng. T he S a nc t ua r y ha s a l s o bui l t a l a r ge e duc a t i on c e nt e r t ha t br i ngs i n s c hool g r oups f r om t he s ur r oundi ng a r e a s t o l e a r n a bout c ons e r va t i on, pol l ut i on f l o r a a nd f a una T he e duc a t i on c e nt e r w or ks w i t h s c hool s t o c om pl e m e nt t he s t ude nt s s yl l a bus a nd a l s o ha s do r m s s e t up f o r ove r ni gh t s t a ys T he S a nc t ua r y e m pl oys m a i ds c ooks a nd w a i t e r s f r om t he t hr e e C B O vi l l a ge s H ow e ve r pe opl e out s i de t he c om m uni t y f i l l s om e s ki l l e d pos i t i ons ( s uc h a s t he m a na ge r a nd he a d c he f ) R e ga r dl e s s t he S a nc t ua r y i s a ve r y popul a r pl a c e t o w or k a nd t he m a na ge r i s c ont i nuous l y f l oode d w i t h a ppl i c a t i ons A l l of t he r e gul a r e m pl oye e s r e c e i ve s om e c ons e r va t i on e duc a t i on. T he S a nc t ua r y w or ks t hr o ugh t he k got l a t o f i nd da y l a bo r e r s i n t he hope s t ha t t he C hi e f s c a n he l p f i nd c om pe t e nt ( not dr unke n) pe opl e U nf or t una t e l y, t he r e i s no c onne c t i on be t w e e n vi l l a ge a c t i vi t i e s a nd t he S a nc t ua r y a nd t he r e i s no s pi l l ove r of vi s i t or s t o ot he r c om m u ni t y a t t r a c t i ons T he S a nc t ua r y i s s e e n a s a s t oppi ng poi nt be t w e e n J oha nne s bur g a nd M a un. A l s o, w hi l e t he s c hool g r oups m a ke he a vy us e of t he S a nc t ua r y m os t ot he r B a t s w a na i n t he a r e a c a nnot a f f or d t o s t a y o r vi s i t A ny e xt r a pr o f i t s t ha t t he S a nc t ua r y m a ke s go i nt o c om m uni t y pr oj e c t s i n t he s ur r oundi ng vi l l a ge s but c ons i de r i ng t ha t 2007 w a s t he f i r s t ye a r t ha t t he S a nc t ua r y b r oke e ve n, t he s e c om m uni t y pr oj e c t s ha ve not gone i nt o e f f e c t T he S a nc t ua r y i s he a vi l y r e l i a nt on dono r f undi ng a nd gove r n m e nt he l p. F or t una t e l y, t he S a n c t ua r y s pa t r on i s t he c ur r e nt P r e s i de nt S e r e t s e K ha m a I a n K ha m a e ns ur i ng go ve r nm e nt s up por t t ha t m a ny ot he r pr oj e c t s do not pos s e s s T he gove r nm e nt ha s he l pe d pr oc ur e a ni m a l s pr ovi de w a t e r a nd gi ve i nf or m a t i on I n a ddi t i on t he c ur r e nt m a na ge r of t he S a nc t ua r y w a s or i gi na l l y a gove r nm e nt e m pl oye e a nd i s c ons e que nt l y w e l l t r a i ne d.

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30 T he K h a m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y i s a s m a l l ope r a t i on, w i t h l i m i t e d pr of i t bu t i t i s w e l l r un a nd p r ovi de s t he c om m uni t i e s w i t h good e m pl oym e nt oppor t uni t i e s H ow e ve r a n e nor m ous a m ount of t i m e a nd m one y i s put i nt o t r a i ni ng t he gui de s e f f e c t i ve l y w he n t he r e i s no r o om f or a dva nc e m e nt c a us i ng a hi gh t ur nove r r a t e f or t he m os t t a l e nt e d of t he e m pl oye e s N at a B i r d S an c t u ar y T he N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y i s a f a r s m a l l e r a nd l e s s d e ve l ope d C B N R M pr oj e c t l oc a t e d j us t out s i de of N a t a v i l l a ge i n t he uppe r E a s t s e c t i on of t he C e nt r a l D i s t r i c t I n 1988, m e m be r s o f t he N a t a C ons e r va t i on C om m i t t e e br ought t he i de a of c r e a t i ng a s a nc t ua r y f or t he w i l dl i f e ( m os t l y o f t he a vi a n va r i e t y) i n t he S ua P a n, a pr i m e br e e di ng l a nd f or t hous a nds of f l a m i ngos dur i ng t he r a i ny s e a s on, t o a k go t l a m e e t i ng. T he l a nd w a s be i ng l os t t o i ndus t r i a l i z a t i on ( a s oda a s h m i ne i s on pa r t of t he P a n ) a nd i nc r e a s i ng l i ve s t oc k. D e s pi t e oppos i t i on f r o m t he c a t t l e r a nc h e r s us i ng t he a r e a f o r l i ve s t oc k gr a z i ng, t he C ons e r va t i on C om m i t t e e a ppe a l e d t o t he c om m uni t y a nd pus he d t he m ot i on t h r ough, a nd t he N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y ope ne d i t s door t o t he publ i c i n 1993. O ve r t h r e e t hous a nd c a t t l e w e r e r e m ove d f r om t he S a nc t ua r y l a nd. T he r e a r e f our vi l l a ge s i n t he C B O : N a t a M a pos a M a nxa t a e a nd S e pa ko. T he r e a r e onl y e i g ht e m pl oym e nt oppo r t uni t i e s a t t he S a nc t ua r y, but s ur r oundi ng vi l l a ge r s f i l l t he m a l l N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y s uf f e r s m os t of a l l f r om l a c k of m one y. T he S a nc t ua r y doe s not m a ke e nough m one y t o c ove r c os t s m os t ye a r s m uc h l e s s de ve l op a c c om m oda t i ons or a m e ni t i e s f or gue s t s A ne a r by l odge a nd m obi l e s a f a r i c om pa ni e s br i ng i n g r oups of pe opl e a nd pa y a pa r k f e e but t he S a nc t ua r y ha s n o gui de s of i t s ow n a nd onl y one t r uc k ( t ha t i s not a l w a ys w or ki ng) t o us e f o r ga m e d r i ve s T he S a nc t ua r y i s i n ne e d o f l e ga l

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31 a dvi c e t o e nt e r a J V P a nd he l p w i t h bookke e pi ng. A n e duc a t i on of f i c e r i s hi r e d e ve r y s o of t e n, but t hi s pe r s on ne ve r s t a ys l onge r t ha n a ye a r T he N a t a S a nc t ua r y doe s not ha ve a s c om f o r t a bl e a r e l a t i ons hi p w i t h t he s ur r oundi ng c om m uni t i e s a s t he K ha m a R hi no S a n c t ua r y. V i l l a ge r s o f t e n s t e a l f r om t he c a m ps i t e s a nd c ut f e nc e s t o l e t i n t he i r c a t t l e G r e a t e r r e gul a t i on a nd e nf or c e m e nt ne e d t o be i n pl a c e f o r pe opl e w ho vi s i t t he a r e a a s t he y f r e que nt l y go of f r oa d a nd s t e a l e ggs of bi r ds T he S a nc t ua r y doe s not c onne c t w i t h vi l l a ge a c t i vi t i e s ( s uc h a s c l ubs or t r a di t i ona l da nc e pe r f or m a nc e s ) a l t hough a t l e a s t one B oa r d m e m be r t hi nks t ha t w oul d be a pos i t i ve s t e p t o i nvol vi ng t he S a nc t ua r y i n c om m uni t y a f f a i r s 5 5 U nf or t una t e l y, t he S a nc t ua r y bui l di ngs i nc l u di ng t he of f i c e a nd t he m a nge r s hous e bur ne d dow n i n O c t obe r 2008. T hi s m i s f o r t une s e t s t he S a nc t ua r y e ve n f u r t he r ba c k f i na nc i a l l y a nd p r e ve nt s t he m f r om de ve l opi n g. T he B oa r d w a s pl a nni ng t o ge t a w a t e r hol e put i n f or t he a ni m a l s but t he y ne e d t o c ond uc t a n E nvi r onm e nt a l I m pa c t A s s e s s m e nt ( E I A ) f i r s t a nd do not ha ve t he f unds t o hi r e e xpe r t s C on c l u s i o n C ont e xt i s c r i t i c a l t o r unni ng a f unc t i ona l pr og r a m C l e a r l y, t he K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y a nd N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y a r e i n ne e d of di f f e r e nt r e f or m s a nd s uppor t D e s pi t e t he f a c t t ha t ne i t he r m a ke s a l a r ge pr o f i t K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y ha s f a r s upe r i o r s uppor t ne t w or ks t r a i ni ng pr ogr a m s a nd f a c i l i t i e s f or t our i s t s T he w e a l t hy C B O s up i n t he N or t h of t he c ount r y a r e de a l i ng w i t h a w hol e ot he r s e t of pr o bl e m s H ow e ve r c e r t a i n ba s i c i s s ue s c a n be a na l yz e d i n a m o r e c om pr e he ns i ve m a nne r s uc h a s t he l a c k of 5 5 I n t e r v i e w w i t h N a t a C B O B o a r d m e m b e r

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32 c onne c t i on t o a nd c oope r a t i on w i t h t he s ur r oundi n g c om m uni t i e s a nd t he ne e d f or t e c hni c a l c a pa c i t y. A da pt i ng t o a s ys t e m of c om m uni t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i o n a f t e r s e ve r a l de c a de s of t he de ve l opm e nt of e xc l us i ona r y na t i on a l pa r ks r e qui r e s a n a l t e r a t i on o f t hi nki ng on bot h t he l e ve l s of t he na t i ona l gove r n m e nt a nd t he i nd i vi dua l l e ve l a nd B ot s w a na i s c ur r e nt l y s t r uggl i ng w i t h t r a ns f or m i ng t he i r w a nt s a nd e xpe c t a t i ons

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33 C h ap te r 3 A P ol yc e n t r i c A n a l ys i s of Bots w an a s C BN R M P r og r a m I n C ha pt e r 1 I di s c us s e d t he pol yc e nt r i c de s i gn pr i nc i pl e s t ha t B l om qui s t O s t r om a nd W uns c h c r e a t e d t o de t e r m i ne t he ke y f a c t or s i n de ve l opi ng a f unc t i oni ng s e l f go ve r ni ng r e s our c e r e gi m e 5 6 I n o r de r t o a na l yz e B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr ogr a m e f f e c t i ve l y, I ha ve c hos e n t o e xa m i ne i t s pe r f o r m a nc e a l ong B l om qui s t a nd O s t r om s f i ve di m e ns i ons of i nf or m a t i on, c om m uni c a t i on, s ym m e t r y, e nf o r c e m e nt a nd m oni t or i ng. U nde r t he um br e l l a of t hi s a na l ys i s I f oc us on s i x d e s i gn pr i nc i pl e s hi ghl i ght e d by W uns c h a nd O s t r om T he ove r a r c hi ng s t r uc t ur e o f t he f i ve di m e ns i ons gi ve s c ont e xt t o t he m or e s pe c i f i c de s i gn p r i nc i pl e s a nd t he l a t t e r c l a r i f y t he pr oc e s s e s t ha t ne e d t o be r e f or m e d. T he pr i nc i pl e s m os t r e l e va nt f or B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m a r e : c l e a r l y de f i ne d bounda r i e s ne s t e d e nt e r pr i s e s i m por t a nc e of c o pr oduc t i on, pr opo r t i ona l e qui va l e nc e be t w e e n be ne f i t s a nd c os t s de gr e e of c hoi c e a nd t e c hni c a l c e r t a i nt y. I ha ve i nc l ude d a n a ddi t i ona l pr i nc i pl e o f e f f e c t i ve c ons e r va t i on, a s n one of t he l i s t s s pe c i f i c a l l y de a l w i t h 5 6 B l o m q u i s t a n d O s t r o m s d i m e n s i o n s f o r e f f e c t i v e s e l f g o v e r n a n c e i n c l u d e : i n f o r m a t i o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y m m e t r y m o n i t o r i n g a n d e n f o r c e m e n t O s t r o m s d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e l i s t i n c l u d e s : c l e a r l y d e f i n e d b o u n d a r i e s p r o p o r t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n c e b e t w e e n b e n e f i t s a n d c o s t s c o l l e c t i v e c h o i c e a r r a n g e m e n t s m o n i t o r i n g g r a d u a t e d s a n c t i o n s c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n m e c h a n i s m s m i n i m a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f r i g h t s t o o r g a n i z e a n d n e s t e d e n t e r p r i s e s W u n s c h s d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e l i s t i n c l u d e s : e x c l u d a b i l i t y j o i n t n e s s o f c o n s u m p t i o n s p i l l o v e r s a n d e x t e r n a l i t i e s t e c h n i c a l c e r t a i n t y m e a s u r a b i l i t y a n d s p e c i f i c i t y o f o u t p u t s o r i n p u t s i m p o r t a n c e o f c o p r o d u c t i o n s c a l e o f o p e r a t i o n r e g a r d i n g a v e r a g e u n i t c o s t a n d d e g r e e o f c h o i c e b y u s e r s

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34 c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m s M a ny r e f or m e f f or t s i n B o t s w a na a r e f oc us e d on i m pr ovi ng t he t e c hni c a l pe r f or m a nc e of t he C B N R M pr oj e c t s ( a de f i ni t e ne c e s s i t y) ; how e ve r t he i s s ue s i l l um i na t e d by t he de s i gn pr i nc i pl e s c oul d a l s o be i m pr ove d w i t h t he j udi c i a l us e o f c ur r e nt pa r t i c i pa t i on t he or y a nd pr a c t i c e I n f or m a t i o n T he f i ve c ondi t i ons f or e f f e c t i ve s e l f gove r ni ng i ns t i t ut i ons t ha t O s t r om a nd B l om qui s t out l i ne a r e s e t up i n r e a c t i on t o w or k by L e w i s a nd C ow e ns on c om m una l r e s our c e r e gi m e s f unc t i oni ng w i t hout i ns t i t ut i ons 5 7 L e w i s a nd C ow e ns de t e r m i ne d w ha t t he f i ve di m e ns i ons w oul d l ook l i ke be f or e t he i nt r oduc t i on of i ns t i t ut i ons T he i nf or m a t i on c ondi t i on, i n t ha t c a s e i s t ha t a l l pe opl e i nvol ve d i n r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt ha ve c om pl e t e i nf or m a t i on a bout t he r e s our c e a nd t he ot he r pe opl e us i ng i t W i t hout a n i ns t i t ut i ona l s e t t i ng, t he pa r t i c i pa t i ng m e m be r s m u s t c ont a i n a l l of t he know l e dge ne c e s s a r y. W i t h i ns t i t ut i ons i n pl a c e t he q ue s t i on be c om e s i s t he r e s om e w a y f or pa r t i c i pa nt s t o f i nd out w ha t i s goi ng on? 5 8 I n B ot s w a na t he c l e a r e s t br e a kdow n o f t he i nf or m a t i on c ondi t i on i s i n l a nd ow ne r s hi p a nd a l l oc a t i on. D e s i gn P r i n c i pl e : C l e ar l y D e f i n e d B ou n dar i e s T he c om pl e x r e l at i ons hi ps am ong l and t e nur e l an d boar ds and C B N R M c om m uni t i e s ne e d t o be c l e ar l y de l i ne at e d and e as i l y ne got i abl e H ow e v e r t he pr oc e s s of ge t t i ng l and f or C B N R M i s no t s t at i c t he r e s pons i bi l i t i e s of c o m m uni t i e s ar e not al w ay s ( or e v e n us ual l y ) c l e ar and l and al l oc at i on i s of t e n de t e r m i ne d by i nf or m al and d i s c r i m i nat or y pr ac t i c e 5 7 P o l y c e n t r i c G o v e r n a n c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 6 2 5 8 P o l y c e n t r i c G o v e r n a n c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 6 6

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35 T he s ys t e m of l a nd ow ne r s hi p a nd t he s t r uc t ur e s c ont r ol l i ng l a nd a l l oc a t i on ha ve f unda m e nt a l l y s ha pe d t he C B N R M pr ogr a m i n B ot s w a na T r i ba l or ga ni z a t i on, c ol oni a l i z a t i on, a nd t he de c i s i ons of t he r ul i ng pa r t y a t i nde pe nde nc e a l l m a de l a s t i ng i m pr e s s i ons on l a nd pol i c i e s w hi c h i n t ur n he a pe d c om pl i c a t i ons on t he i m pl e m e nt a t i on a nd a c c e pt a nc e of C B N R M B e f or e a nd dur i ng t he B r i t i s h c ol oni a l i z a t i on of B o t s w a na a c c e s s a nd us e of l a nd w a s de t e r m i ne d by C hi e f s P e opl e w e r e gi ve n l a nd ba s e d on t he i r s t a t us w i t hi n t he r e gi on; how e ve r out s i de r s c oul d a c qui r e l a nd us e r i ght s by s w e a r i ng l oya l t y t o t he C hi e f 5 9 S i nc e I nde pe nde nc e t he B ot s w a na D e m oc r a t i c P a r t y ( B D P ) ha s be e n a m e ndi ng l a nd r i gh t s a nd us e pl a ns t o r e f l e c t a m or e na t i ona l i de nt i t y, r a t he r t ha n one c e nt e r e d on l oc a l t r i be s I n 1968 t he gove r nm e nt pa s s e d t he T r i ba l L a nd P ol i c y t ha t c r e a t e d l a nd boa r ds i n t he e i ght r e gi ons c ont r o l l e d by t he m a j or T s w a na s pe a ki ng t r i be s t o t a ke ove r l a nd a l l oc a t i on dut i e s f r om t he C hi e f s I n 1976, t hr e e a ddi t i ona l l a nd boa r ds w e r e f or m e d i n C hobe G ha nz i a nd K ga l a ga di non T s w a na m a j or i t y a r e a s t o r e p r e s e nt ot he r t r i be s T he s e l a nd boa r ds onl y de a l t w i t h a g r o pa s t or a l l a nd us e ; hunt i ng a nd ga t he r i ng w a s not r e c ogni z e d a s a va l i d l a nd us e s t r a t e gy. I n 1993, t h e T r i ba l L a nd A c t w a s a m e nde d onc e a ga i n t o r e m ove l a nd r i ght s f r om e t hni c i n f l ue nc e a nd a l l ow c i t i z e ns t o ow n l a nd, r e ga r dl e s s of e t hni c gr oup T he f oc us on a gr o pa s t or a l i s t us e w a s not c ha nge d t hough l e a vi ng t he S a n out of t he m i x onc e a ga i n. T he T r i ba l G r a z i ng L a nd P ol i c y of 1974, a n e f f or t t o s t op ove r gr a z i ng t hr ough e nc l os ur e of c om m una l g r a z i ng l a nds be ga n a n e v ol ut i on of l a nd pol i c y t ha t i nc r e a s e d 5 9 A m y R P o t e e t e H o w N a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s A f f e c t s N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e P o l i c y : T h e C a s e o f C o m m u n i t y B a s e d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t i n B o t s w a n a 2 0 0 7 P a p e r P r e s e n t e d a t t h e 4 8 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s A s s o c i a t i o n A n n u a l C o n v e n t i o n 1 1

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36 i ne qua l i t y s ubs t a nt i a l l y. T he 1991 A g r i c ul t ur a l P ol i c y pr om ot e d e nc l os ur e a s w e l l t hr ough t he f e nc i ng of c a t t l e r a nc he s c l a i m i ng t ha t pr i va t e r a nc he s w e r e m or e p r oduc t i ve O ve r gr a z i ng c ont i nue s t o be a pr obl e m t hough be c a us e w e a l t hy r a nc he r s w e r e ne ve r ba r r e d f r om us i ng c om m una l l a nd a s w e l l a s t he f e nc e d a r e a s C ons e r va t i on pol i c i e s a l s o di s t a nc e d pe opl e e s pe c i a l l y t he S a n f r om l a nd. W he n t he gove r nm e nt s e t a pa r t l a nd f o r na t i ona l pa r ks r e qui r i ng t he S a n t o m ove out of t he i r t r a di t i ona l l a nds ( f or i ns t a nc e t he C e nt r a l K a l a ha r i G a m e R e s e r ve ) i t s t a r t e d t he R e m ot e A r e a D e ve l opm e nt P r ogr a m m e ( R A D P ) t o r e s e t t l e S a n i n s e r vi c e a r e a s e qui ppe d w i t h w a t e r c l i ni c s a nd s c hool s I n t he 1980s R A D P c l e a r l y be c a m e a pr ogr a m t o a s s i m i l a t e a nd c i vi l i z e t he S a n. 6 0 A l t hough t he B D P c hos e t o k e e p t he t r a di t i ona l C h i e f s i n pl a c e a nd p r om ot e d s om e l e ve l of p r i va t i z a t i on w i t h t he A gr i c ul t u r a l P ol i c y, t he m os t i m por t a nt na t ur a l r e s our c e i n B ot s w a na di a m onds ha s be e n he l d s e c ur e l y i n t he ha nds of t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt P r e s i de nt S e r e t s e K ha m a s de c i s i on t o na t i ona l i z e t he di a m ond m i ne s r a t he r t ha n l e a vi ng t he m i n t he r e gi ona l c ont r ol of t he l a n d boa r ds or t he C hi e f s i s pr oba bl y one of t he m os t i m por t a nt de c i s i ons m a de i n B ot s w a na t o da t e T he na t i ona l c ont r o l of di a m onds e l i m i na t e d m uc h c ha nc e of s t r ong, a ut on om ous l oc a l gove r nm e nt s i n t e ns e s t r uggl e s ove r r e s our c e s or br e a k dow n of t he c ou nt r y i nt o t r i ba l l a nds N ow t he un i t y c r e a t e d by t he f i r s t P r e s i de nt t hr ough na t i ona l i z a t i on of r e s our c e s i s be gi nni ng t o f a l t e r C B N R M i s a c t ua l l y c ons i de r e d, by s om e t o be e vi de nc e of t ha t I n t he f a c e of de c a de s of na t i ona l c ont r ol of na t ur a l r e s our c e s C B N R M a ppe a r s t o be i n c onf l i c t w i t h t he t r e nd of us i ng t he w e a l t h o f t he c ount r y t o be ne f i t a l l I n a ddi t i on 6 0 B S c h u s t e r a n d O T T h a k a d u N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t a n d P e o p l e 2 0 0 7 C B N R M S u p p o r t P r o g r a m m e O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r N o 1 5 I U C N C B N R M S u p p o r t P r o g r a m m e 4 2

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37 t o que s t i ons a bout t he a ppr op r i a t e ne s s of a de c e nt r a l i z e d c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m i n a na t i ona l i z e d r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt c ont e xt t he a l l oc a t i on s ys t e m f or C B N R M i s c onf us i ng a nd of t e n w o r ks a ga i ns t t he be s t w i s he s of t he pe opl e i nvol ve d w i t h t he pr ogr a m T he C B N R M c om m uni t i e s do not ha ve ow ne r s hi p r i ght s t o l a nd A f t e r c om m uni t i e s ha ve f or m e d a R A L E a nd a L a nd U s e M a na ge m e nt P l a n ( L U M P ) t he L a nd B oa r d i n t he a r e a gi ve s c om m uni t i e s us e r r i ght s W i t h t he a ppr ova l of t he L a nd B oa r d, c om m uni t i e s c a n t he n c hoos e t o s ub l e a s e t he i r l a nd t o e xt e r na l c om pa ni e s i n t he p r i va t e s e c t or or t he y c a n r e c e i ve de ve l opm e nt r i ght s a nd us e t he l a nd t he m s e l ve s R i ght s a r e a l w a ys c ondi t i ona l ; t he na t i ona l gove r n m e nt m a i nt a i ns ul t i m a t e c ont r ol ove r w i l dl i f e w a t e r ve l d p r oduc t s a nd s t a t e l a nd. L a nd r i ght s a r e a l s o s pe c i f i c a nd r e f e r onl y t o c e r t a i n r e s our c e s ( m a i nl y w i l dl i f e a l t hough f a i r l y r e c e nt l y C B N R M ha s be e n e xpa nde d t o i nc l ude f i s h a nd ve l d pr oduc t s ) T he L a nd B oa r ds r e m a i n t he l e ga l ow ne r s o f c om m una l l a nds 6 1 G e t t i ng C B N R M l a nd i s di f f i c ul t T he c r e a t i on o f ne w W M A s i s a t e ns i on r i dde n i s s ue s o c om m uni t i e s out s i de of t hos e e xi s t i ng a r e a s r e ga r dl e s s of t he i r w i l dl i f e l e ve l s w i l l ha ve pr obl e m s j o i ni ng t he pr ogr a m T he L a nd B oa r ds t e nd t o be r un by l oc a l e l i t e s a nd t he na t i ona l gove r n m e nt a ut hor i t i e s a ppoi nt t h e m a j or i t y o f m e m be r s F i ve a r e c hos e n f r om a l i s t of t w e nt y e l e c t e d by l oc a l c om m uni t i e s f i ve a r e di r e c t l y a ppoi nt e d by t he M i ni s t e r a nd t w o r e pr e s e nt t he M i ni s t r y of A g r i c ul t ur e a nd t he M i ni s t r y o f 6 1 B B u z w a n i T S e t l h o g i l e J A r n t z e n a n d F P o t t s B e s t P r a c t i c e s i n B o t s w a n a f o r t h e M a n a g e m e n t o f N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s b y C o m m u n i t i e s 2 0 0 7 C B N R M S u p p o r t P r o g r a m m e O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r N o 1 7 I U C N C B N R M S u p p o r t P r o g r a m m e

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38 C om m e r c e a nd I ndus t r y. 6 2 T he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt i s he a vi l y i nve s t e d i n c a t t l e r a nc hi ng a nd a gr i c ul t ur e a nd t he r e i s s om e c onc e r n t ha t i m p a r t i a l i t y i n t e r m s of l a nd us e i s c om pr om i s e d i n t he gove r nm e nt 6 3 N ot onl y do e l i t e s c ont r ol l a nd a l l oc a t i on but a l s o t he r e s e e m t o be s e ve r a l di f f e r e nt pr oc e s s e s f or ge t t i ng l a nd, c onf us i ng t hi ngs f ur t he r T he m a j or i t y of c om m uni t i e s ( 70% ) a l s o ha ve t r oubl e u nde r s t a ndi ng t he pr oc e s s of c r e a t i ng L U M P s 6 4 T he s t a nda r ds a nd r e a s ons be hi nd C om m uni t y B a s e d O r ga ni z a t i on ( C B O ) f or m a t i on a r e a l s o unc l e a r C B O s c a n be one vi l l a g e o r m a ny T he gove r nm e nt t e nds t ow a r d i nc l us i on, r a t he r t ha n s m a l l e r pr o j e c t s but t hos e C B O s t ha t i nc l ude m ul t i pl e vi l l a ge s of t e n r un i nt o t r a ns por t a t i on a nd c om m uni c a t i on pr obl e m s not t o m e nt i on a l a c k of c om m uni t y c ohe s i on a nd i de nt i t y. T he r e s e e m s t o be no obv i ous s ys t e m f or w hy s om e vi l l a ge s a r e c hos e n a nd ot he r s a r e not 6 5 T he f a c t t ha t t he r e w a s no ove r a l l c ohe r e nt i m pl e m e nt a t i on s t r a t e gy f o r C B N R M w he n i t f i r s t be ga n c e r t a i nl y c ont r i but e d t o t he c onf us i on. T he bounda r i e s of w ha t i s a c c e pt a bl e i n t e r m s of l a nd us e be c om e e ve n m or e c om pl i c a t e d w he n hunt i ng a nd ga t he r i ng i s i nvo l v e d. S i nc e none of t he l a nd pol i c e s c ove r hunt i ng a nd ga t he r i ng a s a n of f i c i a l l a nd us e s t r a t e gy, gr oups l i ke t he S a n t ha t s ur vi ve of f of s ubs i s t e nc e hunt i ng a r e l e f t w i t hout l e ga l c l a i m s t o t he l a nd t ha t t he y us e S pe c i a l G a m e L i c e ns e s w e r e a va i l a bl e t ha t a l l ow e d a pe r s o n t o hunt a c e r t a i n num be r o f a ni m a l s f or f ood pe r ye a r H ow e ve r t he i nt r oduc t i on of C B N R M r e voke d t hos e i ndi vi dua l l i c e ns e s a nd l ow e r e d t he quot a of hunt i ng a ni m a l s s ubs t a nt i a l l y. H unt i ng a nd ga t he r i ng 6 2 E m m a n u e l T e m b o a n d J u l i a n V S i m e l a O p t i m i s i n g L a n d I n f o r m a t i o n M a n a g e m e n t i n T r i b a l L a n d s o f B o t s w a n a 2 0 0 4 F I G W o r k i n g W e e k 2 6 3 B o t s w a n a P o l i t i c s U n i v e r s i t y o f B o t s w a n a F a l l 2 0 0 7 6 4 B e s t P r a c t i c e s i n B o t s w a n a 1 1 6 5 H o w N a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s A f f e c t N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t 1 6

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39 pr ovi de d a c onne c t i on t o t he l a nd t ha t i s no l onge r r e c ogni z e d. I l l e ga l s ubs i s t e nc e hunt i ng c ont i nue s t hough, onl y w i t hout t r a di t i ona l c om m u ni t y c ont r ol s s i nc e i t m us t be done s e c r e t l y. T he l a nd m a na ge m e nt s ys t e m a l l ove r B ot s w a na i s l e s s t r a ns pa r e nt a nd e qua l t ha n one w oul d hope T he f e nc i ng of pr i va t e r a nc he s ( w i t hout pr e ve nt i on of w e a l t hy r a nc he r s f r om us i ng c om m una l l a nds ) t he ove r s i ght of no t r e c ogni z i ng hunt i ng a nd ga t he r i ng a s l e gi t i m a t e l a nd us e s t r a t e gi e s a nd t he que s t i ons of how C B O s a r e f or m e d a nd ge t l a nd, a l l s e r ve t o m a r g i na l i z e r ur a l pe opl e a nd m a ke r i gh t s t o l a nd unc l e a r I w oul d a r gue t ha t w he r e r i ght s a r e unc l e a r r e s pons i bi l i t i e s a r e a l s o u nc l e a r T hi s c onf us i on i s c om pounde d i n C B N R M w i t h t he a ddi t i on o f c ons e r va t i on. C ons e r va t i on quot a s a nd pr a c t i c e s a r e ba s e d on D e pa r t m e nt of W i l dl i f e a nd N a t i ona l P a r ks ( D W N P ) s t a t i s t i c s a nd s t udi e s a nd not on c om m uni t y know l e dge or opi ni on r e nde r i n g c ons e r va t i on r ul e s opa que a nd pot e nt i a l l y a r bi t r a r y t o c om m uni t y m e m be r s W i t h out e f f e c t i ve m e t hods o f obt a i ni ng a nd r e l a yi ng i nf o r m a t i on, C B O s a r e uns ur e of w ha t i s e xpe c t e d of t he m a nd t he r ol e s t he y ne e d t o pl a y, e s pe c i a l l y i n r e ga r ds t o s us t a i na bi l i t y. C ur r e nt l y, l a nd m a na ge m e nt r e gul a t i ons a r e f i l t e r e d do w n t o l oc a l s i n a n i nc om pl e t e w a y; a n i nc r e a s e i n pa r t i c i pa t i on on t he c om m uni t y s i de a nd a n i nc r e a s e i n r e s pons i ve ne s s on t he s t a t e s i de c oul d he l p t he di s c r i m i na t or y a nd e l i t i s t na t ur e o f l a nd a l l oc a t i on i n B ot s w a na C om m u n i c at i o n W i t hout i ns t i t ut i on s L e w i s a nd C ow e ns a s s um e t ha t c om m uni c a t i on m us t be i m m e di a t e undi s t or t e d, a nd c os t l e s s be c a us e a l l i ndi vi dua l s ha ve a l l t he i nf or m a t i on

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40 ne c e s s a r y. 6 6 H ow e ve r t he di s t r i but i on of i nf o r m a t i o n i n a non pe r f e c t s ys t e m i s m or e c om pl i c a t e d t ha n t ha t T he s h a r i ng of i nf or m a t i on i s ne c e s s a r y, s i nc e a l l us e r s w i l l not a dopt t he s a m e pos i t i ons a nd s om e f or um m us t be c r e a t e d t o s pr e a d i n f or m a t i on t o t he c om m uni t i e s a nd s t a ke hol de r s i nvol ve d. T he ne s t e dne s s of i ns t i t ut i ons a nd t he i m por t a nc e of c o pr oduc t i on ( i n B ot s w a na t he r e l a t i ons hi p be t w e e n c om m uni t i e s a nd t he pr i va t e s e c t or ) i l l us t r a t e s om e of t he m e t hods of c o m m uni c a t i on C B N R M ha s a dopt e d. D e s i gn P r i n c i pl e : N e s t e d E n t e r pr i s e s P ol y c e nt r i c I ns t i t ut i onal i s m i s pr i m ar i l y c onc e r ne d w i t h t he w ay t ha t l e v e l s of i ns t i t ut i ons r e l at e and af f e c t e ac h ot he r R at he r t han s uppor t i ng de c e nt r al i z at i on or c e nt r al i z at i on, pol y c e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i onal i s m r e c om m e nd s bl e ndi ng di f f e r e nt m e t hods of i ns t i t ut i onal s t r uc t ur e t o pr ov i de t he m os t e f f e c t i v e s y s t e m T he v ar i ous aut hor i t i e s and l e v e l s of gov e r nm e nt i n B ot s w ana ( nat i onal gov e r nm e nt l o c al c om m uni t i e s t r i bal aut hor i t i e s and non gov e r nm e nt al or gani z at i ons ) c r e at e a t angl e d w e b of i nc e nt i v e s and ov e r l appi ng r e s pon s i bi l i t i e s t hat c hange t he w ay C B N R M i s r un. G ove r nm e nt of f i c e r s N G O of f i c i a l s a nd a c a de m i c s of t e n c i t e t he c onne c t i ons a nd r e l a t i ons hi ps a m ong t he va r i ous a c t or s i nvol ve d i n C B N R M i n B ot s w a na a nd e l s e w he r e a s a pr obl e m T he pr ogr a m e s pe c i a l l y now t ha t t he ne w pol i c y ha s pa r t i a l l y c e nt r a l i z e d c ont r ol of r e ve n ue c oul d be vi e w e d a s a n e xpa ns i on of s t a t e c ont r ol i ns t e a d of a t r ue e xpr e s s i on of l oc a l e m pow e r m e nt A c t or s a t t he na t i ona l l e ve l ha ve a num be r o f i nc e nt i ve s t o ke e p C B N R M unde r t he i r t hum b I m e nt i one d a bove t ha t C B N R M i s a de pa r t ur e f r o m t he t r e nd of na t i ona l i z a t i on of na t ur a l r e s our c e s t ha t t he gove r n m e nt ha s f ol l o w e d f r om i nde pe nde nc e T he a dopt i on of C B N R M a c t ua l l y c a us e d a ba c kl a s h a ga i ns t t he gove r nm e nt c ont r ol of d i a m ond m i ne s C om m uni t i e s s ur r oundi ng m i ne s be ga n l obbyi ng f or de c e nt r a l i z a t i on of t he m i ne s a nd t he i r be ne f i t s w he n t he be ne f i t s f r om t ou r i s m s t a r t e d c om i ng i nt o C B N R M c om m uni t i e s 6 6 P o l y c e n t r i c G o v e r n a n c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 6 3

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41 O f c our s e t he r e i s a di f f e r e nc e be t w e e n w a nt i ng i n c r e a s e d be ne f i t s f r om l oc a l l y c ont r ol l e d di a m ond m i ne s a nd t r yi ng t o p r ot e c t w i l dl i f e by gi v i ng r u r a l pe o pl e a n e c onom i c be ne f i t f o r not poa c hi ng t he m 6 7 H ow e ve r t he i nc r e a s e d c e nt r a l i z a t i on of C B N R M i n t he ne w pol i c y c oul d be s e e n a s a w a y t o s i l e nc e not i ons of r e c l a i m i ng l oc a l c ont r ol of t he m i ne s T he na t i ona l gove r n m e nt ha s ne ve r be e n ove r l y s u ppor t i ve of C B N R M T he pr ogr a m ha s c ont i nue d m a i n l y be c a us e of dono r s a nd de t e r m i ne d i ndi vi dua l s T he c ur r e nt P r e s i de nt f o r one ha s i nve s t e d i n num e r ous f or e i g n s a f a r i ope r a t i ons w hi c h c oul d be c ons i de r e d a c onf l i c t of i nt e r e s t C ons e que nt l y, t he bur de n o f C B N R M f a l l s m a i nl y on t he D W N P T he D W N P s t a f f i s t r a i ne d t o de a l w i t h w i l dl i f e qu ot a s not r ur a l de ve l opm e nt A l t hough t he e xt e ns i on of f i c e r s do v i s i t t he C B N R M pr oj e c t s s e ve r a l t i m e s a ye a r i t i s que s t i ona bl e how e f f e c t i ve l y t he y c a n de a l w i t h pr obl e m s T he R ur a l D e ve l opm e nt m i ni s t r i e s i n gove r nm e nt a r e not c on ne c t e d w i t h t he pr og r a m T he D e pa r t m e nt of T our i s m on l y w or ks w i t h a f e w di s t r i c t s a nd i t s c a pa c i t y i s s m a l l 6 8 T he B ot s w a na T our i s m B oa r d ( B T B ) c r e a t e d i n 2003 a s t he m a r ke t i ng a r m f o r t ou r i s m a nd t he D e pa r t m e nt of T ou r i s m a ppe a r t o be doi ng t he s a m e j ob. A n o f f i c e r i n t he D e pa r t m e nt of E nvi r onm e nt a l A f f a i r s ( D E A ) s a i d t ha t t he B T B s houl d not be i nvol ve d i n i m pl e m e nt a t i on, but t he B T B di r e c t or i n f a vor o f s e pa r a t i ng m a r ke t i ng a nd i m pe m e nt a t i on w a s f i r e d. 6 9 T he D i s t r i c t C ounc i l s a r e out w a r dl y hos t i l e t o C B O s T he y be l i e ve t he y a r e m o r e c a pa bl e of m a na gi ng w i l dl i f e a nd vi e w a ut onom ou s l oc a l c om m uni t i e s a s a t hr e a t t o t he i r 6 7 A m y R P o t e e t e R e s o u r c e s f o r t h e N a t i o n o r f o r C o m m u n i t i e s ? I n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n M i n e r a l R i g h t s W i l d l i f e P o l i c i e s a n d P o l i t i c a l C o a l i t i o n s i n B o t s w a n a 2 0 0 7 A n n u a l M e e t i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e A s s o c i a t i o n 6 6 8 C e n t e r f o r A p p l i e d R e s e a r c h I n t e r v i e w 6 9 D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l A f f a i r s I n t e r v i e w

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42 pol i t i c a l c ont r ol T he D i s t r i c t C ounc i l s ha ve de ve l ope d a f r a m e w or k a nd vi s i on o f w ha t w i l dl i f e m a na ge m e nt s houl d l ook l i ke a nd a nyt hi n g t ha t de vi a t e s f r o m t ha t t he y c a l l m i s m a na ge m e nt r e ga r dl e s s of w he t he r c or r upt i on i s pr e s e nt or not T hi s a t t i t ude o f di s t r i c t a ut hor i t i e s c a n be t r a c e d ba c k t o t he pe r i od be f or e c ol oni a l i s m w he n t he y w e r e m a ki ng a n e f f o r t t o c e nt r a l i z e a nd a s s i m i l a t e e t hni c gr oups C B N R M a l s o di ve r t s f unds a nd s t a f f f r om l oc a l gove r nm e nt A s t he na t i ona l g ove r nm e nt r e c e i ve s a l l t he r e ve nue f r om di a m onds l oc a l gove r n m e nt s ha ve ve r y l i t t l e a ut onom ous f undi ng a nd C B N R M e xa c e r ba t e s t he pr obl e m 7 0 B O C O B O N E T w a s c r e a t e d t o gi ve C B O s a udi t i ng a nd l e ga l he l p but a ga i n, c a pa c i t y i s l i m i t e d. T he y do hi r e a udi t or s a l t hough not on a s r e gul a r a ba s i s a s ne c e s s a r y. T he C B N R M N a t i ona l F or um a c onve nt i on hos t e d by a C B O t ha t m e e t s r e gul a r l y a nd i nvol ve s a l l t he s t a ke hol de r s i s us e f ul f or a i r i ng gr i e va nc e s but l a c ks c a pa c i t y a s w e l l T he r e w e r e onl y e i ght e nvi r onm e nt a l N G O s i n B ot s w a na a s of 2006. T he K a l a ha r i C ons e r va t i on S oc i e t y, a s m a l l N G O i s t r yi ng t o pr ovi de a dvi c e a nd a s s i s t a nc e t o f i ve C B N R M s i t e s i n a ddi t i on t o t w e l ve ot he r m a j or p r oj e c t s W i t hi n t he C B O s t he m s e l ve s t he r e a r e p r obl e m s i n di f f e r e nt i a t i ng boa r d m e m be r s f r om m a na ge r s w hi c h e ve r yone I i nt e r vi e w e d a gr e e d w a s a pr obl e m T he B oa r d M e m be r s i ns t e a d of m a ki ng p l a ns f or de ve l opm e nt a nd ove r a l l vi s i ons f or t he C B O s a r e r unni ng t he da y t o da y ope r a t i ons of t h e C B N R M pr oj e c t s W hi l e I w a s a t t he N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y, one o f t he B oa r d m e m be r s w a s he l pi ng bui l di ng a f e nc e T he C B N R M gove r ni ng s t r uc t ur e s t e nd not t o be c onne c t e d w i t h l oc a l gove r na nc e de s pi t e t he 7 0 F o r t h e N a t i o n o r f o r C o m m u n i t i e s ? 1 4

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43 us e of k got l as T he c om m uni t i e s a nd t he pr o j e c t s of t e n ha ve not hi ng t o do w i t h e a c h ot he r be yond e m pl oym e nt 7 1 T he us e of t he k got l a t he t r a di t i ona l T s w a na m e e t i ng pl a c e a s t he p r i m a r y f or m of c om m uni c a t i on a m ong t he C B O s t he gove r nm e nt a nd t he c om m uni t i e s pr e s e nt s s om e di f f i c ul t i e s T he gove r nm e nt i n t he m obi l i z a t i on of c om m uni t i e s f or C B N R M us e d t he k gol t a e xt e ns i ve l y s i nc e i t i s t r a di t i ona l l y de e m e d a de m oc r a t i c f or u m f o r t he T s w a na G ove r nm e nt of f i c i a l s us e t he k got l a t o m a ke pr e s e nt a t i ons a nd c l a r i f y i s s ue s unde r di s c us s i on. M a na ge m e nt de c i s i on s a r e onl y s e e n a s l e gi t i m a t e w he n m a de t hr ough a k got l a m e e t i ng. H ow e ve r w hi l e k got l a m e e t i ngs a r e us e f ul f o r um s f o r di s c us s i on, t he y a r e pr e s i de d ove r by a c hi e f or he a dm a n w ho m a ke s t he a ut hor i t a t i ve de c i s i on on i s s ue s l i m i t i ng pa r t i c i pa t i on t o voi c i ng opi ni ons T he k got l a i s a l s o t he s pa c e of m e n, a nd ol de r pow e r f ul m e n a t t ha t M a r gi na l i z e d e t hni c g r oups young pe opl e a nd w om e n ha ve t r a di t i ona l l y be e n e xc l u de d f r om k got l a p r oc e e di ngs E ve n t oda y w om e n a r e not a l w a ys a l l ow e d t o j oi n k got l a m e e t i ngs ( a nd f e m a l e t ou r i s t s a r e e nc our a ge d t o d r e s s a ppr opr i a t e l y i n s ki r t s i f t he y vi s i t one ) I n a ddi t i on t o t he r e pr e s e nt a t i on i s s ue s i nvol ve d w i t h us i ng a n e xc l us i ona r y f or u m f o r pa r t i c i pa t i on, k got l a m e e t i ngs a r e not hi ghl y a t t e nde d by t he popul a t i ons of C B N R M c om m uni t i e s 7 2 T he us e of t he k got l a i s a qui nt e s s e nt i a l e xa m pl e o f t he pot e nt i a l pr obl e m of r e us i ng e s t a bl i s he d pol i t i c a l s pa c e f or ne w p r ogr a m s P a r t i c i pa t i on i n i t s f r e e s t f or m i s not onl y t he r i ght t o pa r t i c i pa t e e f f e c t i ve l y i n a gi ve n s pa c e but t he r i ght t o de f i ne a nd t o s ha pe t ha t s pa c e 7 3 W hi l e i t m a y s e e m e f f e c t i ve a nd i ns i ght f ul i n t he or y t o us e a 7 1 D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l A f f a i r s I n t e r v i e w 7 2 O T T h a k a d u S u c c e s s F a c t o r s i n C o m m u n i t y B a s e d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s M a n a g e m e n t i n N o r t h e r n B o t s w a n a : L e s s o n s f r o m P r a c t i c e 2 0 0 5 N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s F o r u m 2 9 1 9 9 2 1 2 2 0 4 7 3 P a r t i c i p a t i o n : F r o m T y r a n n y t o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ? 3 4

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44 pr e vi ous l y e s t a bl i s he d a nd c ul t ur a l l y a c c e pt e d di s c us s i on f or um t he r e a l i t y i s t ha t m a r gi na l i z e d gr oups ha d no c ha nc e t o r e e va l ua t e t he i r di s c ur s i ve pos i t i ons i n t he ne w pr ogr a m C B N R M r a t he r t ha n e s t a bl i s hi ng ne w p ow e r s t r uc t ur e s m i m i c ke d t he ol d pos i t i ons of pow e r a nd de ni e d gr e a t e r pa r t i c i pa t i on i n t he pr ogr a m W hi l e B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr ogr a m ha s m ul t i pl e c e nt e r s of a ut hor i t y a nd a r e a s of pa r t i c i pa t i on a s pr e s c r i be d by pol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m t he i r ne s t e dne s s i s i ne f f i c i e nt a nd unde ve l ope d. C oor di na t i on a m ong di f f e r e nt gove r nm e nt a ge nc i e s a nd t he c om m uni t i e s i s l a c ki ng. M os t c r i t i c a l l y ba s i s of or ga ni z a t i on a nd pa r t i c i pa t i on f or C B N R M t he k got l a, e xc l ude s m a ny s e c t i ons of s o c i e t y f r om de c i s i on m a ki ng. I m por t an c e of C o P r odu c t i on W hi l e t he m i ni ng s e c t or i s e nt i r e l y nat i onal i z e d, t h e pr i v a t e s e c t or be f or e C B N R M w as i n f ul l c ont r ol of t he t our i s m i ni t i at i v e s i n t he c ount r y C B N R M w as i m pl e m e nt e d, i n par t t o s pr e ad t he be ne f i t s of t our i s m t o l oc al pe opl e r a t he r t han i s ol at e d s af ar i ope r at i v e s H ow e v e r t he pr i v at e s e c t or w i t h i t s hi ghe r e x pe r t i s e and f undi ng r e m ai ns i m por t ant t o B ot s w ana s t our i s m i ndus t r y and c oul d be m or e e f f e c t i v e l y us e d i n C B N R M A s i t s t ands t he pr i v at e s e c t or i s of t e n at odds w i t h C B N R M i ni t i at i v e s and c om m uni t i e s do not hav e a s uppor t s y s t e m f or de al i ng w i t h pr i v at e s e c t or i s s u e s T he J oi nt V e nt ur e P a r t ne r s hi ps ( J V P s ) be t w e e n c o m m uni t i e s a nd pr i va t e s a f a r i c om pa ni e s a r e a c r i t i c a l pa r t of C B N R M D e s pi t e t hi s r e l a t i ons hi p, t he pot e nt i a l of t he pr i va t e s e c t or i s of t e n i gnor e d i n C B N R M T he m a j or i t y o f C B O s c hoos e t o s ub l e a s e t he i r l a nds t o s a f a r i ope r a t or s a nd t he n r e c e i ve c onc e s s i on s f r om t he m J V P s c a n be e xt r e m e l y be ne f i c i a l f o r c om m uni t i e s a nd C B N R M pr oj e c t s S om e pa r t ne r s pr ovi de f undi ng f o r c om m uni t y de ve l opm e nt m e di c a l a s s i s t a nc e a nd a gr i c ul t ur a l ne e ds O t he r s pr ovi de f undi ng f or l i b r a r i e s a nd s uppor t l oc a l f oot ba l l t e a m s J V P s a r e a l s o of t e n i n c ha r ge of m a i nt e na nc e a nd de ve l opm e nt of t our i s m bui l di ngs a nd ope r a t i ons T he N a t a

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45 B i r d S a nc t ua r y, w i t h i t s one di l a pi da t e d t r uc k, w a s i n t he pr oc e s s of s e a r c hi ng f o r a J V P i n 2007 2008 7 4 S om e J V P s unf o r t una t e l y, p r ovi de l e ga l pr obl e m s r a t he r t ha n f undi ng. M a ny s a f a r i c om pa ni e s do not pa y c onc e s s i on f e e s a r e i n vol ve d i n m one y l a unde r i ng, a nd ha ve a c om pl e t e di s r e ga r d f o r l a w s R a c i s m i s a l s o a n i s s ue w i t h s om e J V P s A n e m pl oye e a t t he K a l a ha r i C ons e r va t i on S oc i e t y, a n N G O he a vi l y i nvol ve d i n C B N R M w e nt on va c a t i on a nd w a s t ol d by a s a f a r i c om pa ny t ha t t he y di dn t s e r ve h i s ki nd. 7 5 R a c i s m i n t he t our i s m i ndus t r y w hi l e w i de l y r e c ogni z e d a s e xi s t i ng, i s not de a l t w i t h i n t he gove r nm e nt or t he c our t s T he r e i s l i t t l e s uppor t f o r C B N R M pr oj e c t s i n l e ga l c onf l i c t s w i t h pr i va t e s a f a r i c om pa ni e s due t o l i m i t e d f undi ng a nd s t a f f T he ne got i a t i on f or c hoos i ng a J V P pr e s e nt s s om e c om pl i c a t i ons T he C B O t ha t w i l l be de a l i ng t he J V P f o r f i ve t o f i f t e e n ye a r s do e s not a c t ua l l y c hoos e t he J V P I ns t e a d t he T e c hni c a l A dvi s or y C om m i t t e e ( T A C ) w hi c h i s c om pos e d of f r e que nt l y c ha ngi ng l oc a l a nd di s t r i c t l e ve l of f i c i a l s m a ke s t he f i na l de c i s i on on t he J V P T he T A C s ha ve be e n know n t o not pr ovi de c om m uni t i e s w i t h t he c om pl e t e e va l ua t i on of pot e nt i a l J V P s l e a vi ng c om m uni t i e s uni nf or m e d a nd m o r e s us c e pt i bl e t o i n f l ue nc e t hr ough c or r upt i on ( buyi ng vot e s p r ovi di ng e nt e r t a i nm e nt e t c ) 7 6 T he c om m uni t i e s r e s e nt t he c ont r ol of t he T A C s a nd t he T A C s a r e not c onne c t e d e nough w i t h t he c om m uni t i e s t o be be ne f i c i a l i n t he de c i s i on m a ki ng pr oc e s s 7 7 T he c i r c um s c r i bi ng o f pa r t i c i pa t i on a t t hi s j unc t u r e 7 4 N a t a B i r d S a n c t u a r y I n t e r v i e w 7 5 K a l a h a r i C o n s e r v a t i o n S o c i e t y O f f i c i a l I n t e r v i e w 7 6 B r i a n T B J o n e s C h o b e E n c l a v e B o t s w a n a : l e s s o n s l e a r n t f r o m a C B N R M P r o j e c t C B N R M S u p p o r t P r o g r a m m e O c c a s s i o n a l P a p e r N o 7 I U C N S u p p o r t P r o g r a m m e 1 7 7 7 T a r a G u j a d h u r J o i n t V e n t u r e O p t i o n s f o r C o m m u n i t i e s a n d S a f a r i O p e r a t o r s i n B o t s w a n a 2 0 0 1 C B N R M S u p p o r t P r o g r a m m e O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r N o 6 I U C N S u p p o r t P r o g r a m m e 1 5

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46 unde r m i ne s t he pot e nt i a l f or be ne f i c i a l c o pr oduc t i on a nd f u r t he r de ve l opm e nt of C B N R M pa r t ne r s hi ps S ym m e t r y I n t he L e w i s a nd C ow e ns m ode l a l l t he be ne f i t s a nd c os t s of t he r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt s ys t e m a r e s ha r e d e qua l l y. A l l pa r t i c i pa nt s us e t he s a m e a m ount of r e s our c e s a nd c ont r ol i s m a i nt a i ne d t hr ough t he un de r s t a ndi ng t ha t a l l pa r t i c i pa nt s w i l l c oope r a t e P e r f e c t s ym m e t r y i s p r oba bl y not pos s i bl e i n r e a l l i f e s i t ua t i ons T he r e f or e O s t r om a nd B l om qui s t de t e r m i ne d t ha t t he a l l oc a t i on of c os t s m us t r e l a t e t o t he di s t r i but i on of i nt e r e s t s a m ong t he pa r t i c i pa nt s 7 8 T he c os t s of a pr og r a m or s ys t e m a l s o c a nnot ove r r i de t he be ne f i t s B e yond t he di r e c t que s t i ons of di s t r i but i on t he de gr e e of c hoi c e r e ga r di ng how r e s our c e s a r e us e d a nd di vi d e d a nd t he opt i ons o f pa r t ne r s hi ps a f f e c t t he ba l a nc e of c os t s a nd be ne f i t s i n B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr ogr a m D e s i gn P r i n c i pl e : P r opor t i on al E qu i v al e n c e be t w e e n B e n e f i t s an d C os t s T he di s t r i but i on of f unds and t he r e al i t y o f c os t s c aus e t he m os t c onf l i c t i n C B N R M pr ogr am s T he que s t i on of w ho ge t s w hat and w hy ne e ds t o be ans w e r e d i n a f ai r and bal anc e d m anne r t o e n s ur e t hat t he i nc e nt i v e s t o c ons e r v e ar e s t r ong i n C B N R M A s B ot s w ana s nat i onal gov e r nm e nt pul l s aw ay f r om de c e nt r al i z e d c ont r ol of r e s ou r c e s t he bal anc e of c os t s and be ne f i t s i s pot e nt i al l y s hi f t i ng aw ay f r om pr ov i di ng s t r ong i nc e nt i v e s t o c ont i nue s us t ai nabl e pr ac t i c e s B e ne f i t s f r om C B N R M t a ke bot h e c onom i c a nd no n e c onom i c f or m s C B N R M pr oj e c t s pr ovi de e m pl oym e nt a nd f undi ng f o r c om m uni t y de ve l opm e nt S om e C B O s ha nd out i ndi vi dua l c a s h s t i pe nds C B N R M pr oj e c t s c a n a l s o he l p pr e s e r ve c ul t ur a l 7 8 P o l y c e n t r i c G o v e r n a n c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 6 7

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47 hi s t or y T he T s odi l o H i l l s pr oj e c t i n N or t hw e s t B ot s w a na f or i ns t a nc e i s w or ki ng t o s a ve c a ve pa i nt i ngs f r om a pp r oxi m a t e l y a hundr e d t hou s a nd ye a r s a go. 7 9 T he q ue s t i on of w ho s houl d ge t t he s e be ne f i t s i s not e a s y t o de t e r m i ne T he gove r nm e nt dr a f t e d t he ne w po l i c y w i t h t he t h ought t ha t t he f unds f r om C B N R M s houl d be s pr e a d out a c r os s t he pr oj e c t s N ow 65% of t he pr o f i t s f r om hunt i ng quot a s ( t he bi gge s t m one y m a ke r of C B N R M a c t i v i t i e s ) w i l l go i nt o a N a t i ona l E nvi r onm e nt a l F und t ha t w i l l be a c c e s s i bl e by a ny C B N R M pr oj e c t F or one ye a r t he m one y t ha t a p r oj e c t put s i nt o t he F un d w i l l be he l d f or i t i f i t w r i t e s a g r a nt t o f ul f i l l a c e r t a i n e nde a vor A f t e r t ha t a ny of t he pr oj e c t s c a n us e t he m one y, a s l ong a s t he y w r i t e a n a c c e pt a bl e gr a nt U nf o r t una t e l y, m os t of t he p r o j e c t s e s pe c i a l l y t he poor e s t t ha t ne e d t he m one y m os t w oul d ha ve t o hi r e s om e one t o w r i t e t ha t g r a nt T he r e i s a s t r ong c onc e r n t ha t t he m one y i n t he f und w i l l not be ut i l i z e d by t he C B N R M pr oj e c t s T he F und ha s not be e n i m pl e m e nt e d ye t ( a l t hough i t i s of f i c i a l pol i c y s o t he r e i s s om e que s t i on w he t he r i t w i l l be r e t r oa c t i ve w he n i t doe s ge t i m pl e m e nt e d) but t he que s t i on a s t o w he r e t he be ne f i t s go i s not a ne w o ne T he C B O boa r ds a c t a s i nt e r m e di a r i e s de t e r m i ni ng c om m uni t y p r oj e c t f un di ng a nd ha ndi ng ou t i ndi vi dua l pa ym e nt s T he f unds a r e of t e n us e d w a s t e f ul l y ( bu yi ng m ul t i pl e ve hi c l e s ) or go t ow a r ds B oa r d m e m be r s a l a r i e s 8 0 B oa r d M e m be r s ge t pa i d a c e r t a i n a m ount pe r m e e t i ng F r om J a nua r y 2007 t o M a r c h 2007 t he N a t a B oa r d ha d t hr e e r e gul a r m e e t i ngs t w o e m e r ge nc y m e e t i ngs a nd e l e ve n a ddi t i ona l m e e t i ngs I t i s pr o ba bl e t ha t t he y w e r e a t t e m pt i ng t o m a ke m or e m one y ( t he K C S of f i c i a l c e r t a i nl y t hou ght s o) M one y c a n a l s o di s a ppe a r i nt o 7 9 B o t s w a n a T o u r i s m B o a r d W e b s i t e 8 0 F o r t h e N a t i o n o r F o r C o m m u n i t i e s ? 1 3

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48 t he ha nds of c or r upt m a na ge r s A ga i n, i n N a t a t he boa r d hi r e d a m a na ge r ( a hi r e K C S di d not a ppr ove ) w ho s i gne d h i m s e l f a bl a nk c he c k a nd l e f t 8 1 I n m os t C B N R M pr oj e c t s ve r y l i t t l e o f t he m one y ge t s dow n t o t he i ndi vi dua l s i n t he C B N R M c om m uni t i e s S om e T r us t s i n t he N o r t h e a r n e nough f r om t our i s m t o pr ovi de e c onom i c be ne f i t s t o hous e hol ds e ve n w i t h m i s m a na ge m e nt B ut m o r e T r us t s a r e l i ke N a t a f a i r l y i n de bt t he m s e l ve s a nd c e r t a i nl y not pr ov i di ng m o r e t ha n e i ght e m pl oym e nt oppor t uni t i e s T he e m pl oym e nt oppo r t uni t i e s a r e be ne f i c i a l t o c om m uni t i e s t ha t m a i nl y s ur vi ve of f s ubs i s t e nc e f a r m i ng, t houg h, a nd C B N R M ha s de c r e a s e d yout h m i gr a t i on s l i ght l y 8 2 T he c os t s a r e di s t r i but e d j us t a s une qua l l y a s t he b e ne f i t s D i s c us s i ons of na t i ona l i z i ng w i l dl i f e m a na ge m e nt a ga i n do not s e e m t o t a ke i n t o a c c ount t ha t w i l dl i f e c os t s r e m a i n hi gh. W i l dl i f e i s de s t r uc t i ve t o c r ops a nd da nge r ous f or pe opl e N ot be i ng a bl e t o hunt o r m a ke m one y f r om w i l d l i f e i s t a ki ng a w a y m a ny pe opl e s onl y opt i ons t o s ur vi ve a nd m a ke a l i v i ng. A ga i n, t he S a n ha ve be e n pa r t i c ul a r l y ha r d hi t by t he r e s t r i c t i ons on s ubs i s t e nc e hunt i ng. T he ga m e m e a t r e s t r i c t i ons ha ve f o r c e d w ha t w a s onc e a c om m una l a c t i vi t y i nt o hi di ng ne ga t i ve l y a f f e c t i ng c om m uni t y l i nks a nd t he w a y t he S a n f e e l a s c i t i z e ns of B ot s w a na S om e c l a i m t ha t t he ne w l a w s m a ke t he m l i ve l i ke w hi t e pe opl e l ooki ng a f t e r onl y t he i r ow n c hi l dr e n 8 3 C B N R M m a y be m a ki ng up f or t he l os s of l a nd a nd l i ve l i hood t o a c e r t a i n e xt e nt b ut i t ha s not m a de a n e f f or t t o i nc or por a t e t he c ul t u r a l a s pe c t s of t he S a n. U l t i m a t e l y, t he c os t s of l i vi ng w i t h w i l dl i f e o r l os i ng c ul t ur a l e xpr e s s i ons l i ke hunt i ng a r e not m i t i ga t e d f or m os t m e m be r s of C B N R M c om m uni t i e s 8 1 K a l a h a r i C o n s e r v a t i o n S o c i e t y O f f i c i a l I n t e r v i e w 8 2 C B N R M S t a t u s R e p o r t 4 4 8 3 N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t a n d P e o p l e 4 6

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49 D e s i gn P r i n c i pl e : D e gr e e of C h oi c e G ov e r nm e nt s of t e n be gi n C B N R M pr ogr am s w i t h goal s l i k e e m pow e r m e nt and par t i c i pat i on t hat gi v e l oc al c om m uni t i e s a s ay i n how r e s our c e s ar e ut i l i z e d and w he r e t he pr of i t s ar e al l oc at e d. U nf or t unat e l y t he de gr e e of c hoi c e l e v e l s of par t i c i pat i on, and l oc al aut onom y us ual l y do no t r e f l e c t t hos e goal s M os t c om m uni t i e s hav e onl y l i m i t e d opt i ons f or l and us e e s pe c i al l y w i t h t he r e s t r i c t i ons of c ons e r v at i on and s us t ai nabi l i t y and ar e pus he d i nt o c e r t ai n t r ac k s by of f i c i al s hi gh e r up i n t he gov e r nm e nt I n 2000, C ha s c a T w ym a n di d a c a s e s t udy of t he O kw a W M A i n W e s t e r n B ot s w a na T w ym a n f ound t ha t a l t hough t he l a ngua ge us e d t o i nt r oduc e C B N R M s poke of e m pow e r m e nt a nd pa r t i c i pa t i on i t w a s obvi ous t ha t t he c om m uni t i e s i nvol ve d w e r e e xpe c t e d t o f ol l ow one pa t h, t he one s uppor t e d by t he gove r nm e nt T he c hoi c e t he c om m uni t i e s ha d w a s t o f ol l ow t he gove r n m e nt s l e a d a nd be s uc c e s s f ul or l os e s uppor t T he gove r nm e nt of f i c i a l s p r e s e nt i ng t he pr og r a m c l e a r l y a r t i c ul a t e d t he de c i s i ons t he y w a nt e d c om m uni t y m e m be r s t o m a ke a nd di s m i s s e d a ny s e r i ous que s t i ons r a i s e d by c om m uni t y m e m be r s a s of f t opi c 8 4 T he r e l a t i ons hi p w i t h t he gov e r nm e nt i s l ops i de d, w i t h t he gove r nm e nt e xe r t i ng c ont r ol ove r c ul t ur a l a nd e c onom i c f a c t or s of C B N R M C om m uni t y opt i ons ha ve be e n c i r c um s c r i be d a nd t he pol i t i c a l s pa c e t o di s c us s t hos e opt i ons l e f t t o t he m i s c om p r om i s e d. T he J V P s a r e not c om pl e t e l y ba l a n c e d e i t he r w i t h t he pr i va t e s e c t or ha vi ng onl y s om e obl i ga t i ons t o w a r ds c om m uni t i e s but f a r m or e r e s our c e s a nd c ont r ol w i t h w hi c h t o w or k. T he l i m i t s on c om m uni t i e s r e s t r i c t t he non e c onom i c be ne f i t s of C B N R M T he na t i ona l gove r n m e nt i s not w i l l i ng t o de vol ve m e a ni ngf ul a ut hor i t y t o t he l oc a l c om m uni t i e s T he r e i s s om e c hoi c e a bout w h i c h C B O a pe r s on w oul d l i ke t o j o i n, i f t ha t i ndi vi dua l ha s s om e s ki l l s l i ke t he O ka va ngo D e l t a P ol e r s T r us t w hi c h i s onl y ope n 8 4 C h a s c a T w y m a n P a r t i c i p a t o r y C o n s e r v a t i o n ? C o m m u n i t y B a s e d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t i n B o t s w a n a 2 0 0 0 G e o g r a p h i c J o u r n a l V o l 1 6 6 ( 4 ) 3 2 3 3 3 5

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50 t o gui de s w ho a r e l i c e ns e d t o us e m ok or os ( dugout c a noe s ) but c om m uni t i e s a s a w hol e ha ve l i t t l e c onc r e t e pow e r T he y c a n c hoos e w he t h e r t he y w a nt t o l e a s e t he l a nd ou t t o s a f a r i ope r a t or s or not but t he y a r e l i m i t e d by c ons e r va t i on l a w s t e c hni c a l know l e dge a nd gove r nm e nt bur e a uc r a c y. 8 5 P a r t i c i p a t o r y c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m s a r e f a c e d w i t h a di f f i c ul t l i ne t o w a l k, a s t he y a r e of t e n t r y i ng t o c ha nge a t t i t ude s a s w e l l a s pr a c t i c e s T he e nvi r onm e nt a l ne c e s s i t i e s of t he pr ogr a m na t ur a l l y l e a ve t he c om m uni t i e s i n que s t i on w i t h l i m i t e d c hoi c e s H ow e ve r t he f l ow of i nf or m a t i on a nd di s c us s i on s houl d be m or e ba l a nc e d a nd t he c om m uni t i e s s houl d ha ve g r e a t e r c ont r ol ove r t he pa t hs t he y c a n t a ke f or t he s a ke of bot h e f f e c t i ve r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt a nd t he t r a ns f or m a t i on of pe r s pe c t i ve t ha t c a n c om e w i t h hi ghe r d e gr e e s of c hoi c e a nd p a r t i c i pa t i on i n t he pr oj e c t s M on i t or i n g an d E n f or c e m e n t M oni t or i ng i n t he L e w i s a nd C ow e ns t he or e t i c a l m ode l i s l i ke c om m uni c a t i on, c os t l e s s a nd c or r e c t E a c h pa r t i c i pa nt m oni t o r s a l l of t he ot he r s t hr ough t he i nt a ke o f r e s our c e s E nf or c e m e nt i s e s t a bl i s he d t hr ough de t e r r e nc e t he know l e dge t ha t i f one pe r s on be gi ns ove r us i ng t he c om m on r e s our c e a l l ot he r s w i l l f o l l ow a nd de s t r oy t he r e s our c e M oni t or i ng i n a n i m pe r f e c t s ys t e m how e ve r be c om e s a que s t i on o f pr oduc i ng s uf f i c i e nt m oni t or i ng c a pa c i t y t o e ns ur e t ha t t he m a j or i t y of pa r t i c i pa nt s f o l l ow t he r ul e s a nd t ha t t hos e w ho do not a r e de a l t w i t h f a i r l y. E nf or c e m e nt w i t h i ns t i t ut i ons w hi l e s t i l l a s oc i a l c ont r a c t m ove s a w a y f r om a pr i va t e r e s pons e t o one de t e r m i ne d by t he c om m uni t y. I n or de r f o r m on i t or i ng a nd e nf or c e m e nt t o be s uc c e s s f ul t he p r ogr a m m us t 8 5 C B N R M S t a t u s R e p o r t 4 1

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51 ha ve s om e l e ve l of t e c hni c a l c e r t a i nt y. I n a c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m t he r e i s t he a dde d di f f i c ul t y o f m oni t or i ng a nd e nf or c i ng s us t a i na bi l i t y of t he pr ogr a m B ot s w a na s gove r nm e nt a nd c om m uni t i e s a r e s t r uggl i ng w i t h b ot h t he t e c hni c a l a nd e nvi r onm e nt a l a s pe c t s of i m pl e m e nt i ng t he p r ogr a m a nd bui l di ng c a pa c i t y w i t hi n t he c om m uni t i e s D e s i gn P r i n c i pl e : T e c h n i c al C e r t ai n t y T r ai ni ng i s one of t he m os t bas i c ne c e s s i t i e s i n C B N R M pr o gr am s C B O s c ont e nd w i t h c om pl e x m anage m e nt l e gal and e c onom i c i s s ue s t hat r e qui r e e x pe r t i s e t hat i s ge ne r al l y l ac k i ng i n t he r ur al popul at i ons E v e n i f t he i de ol o gi c al di s c r e panc i e s w e r e f i x e d i n B ot s w ana s pr ogr am t he r e i s s t i l l t he que s t i on of c apac i t y and c apabi l i t y T he ha pha z a r d w a y i n w hi c h B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m e vol ve d a nd t he l a t e ne s s of a uni f or m po l i c y gi ve s om e e vi de nc e o f t he t e c hni c a l c e r t a i nt y of t he pr og r a m T he gove r nm e nt br a nc he s de a l i ng w i t h C B N R M a r e di s c onne c t e d a nd uni nt e r e s t e d, a nd t he N G O s s uppor t i ng pr oj e c t s a r e ove r t a xe d a nd unde r s t a f f e d. C om m uni t i e s a r e e xpe c t e d t o de ve l op l e ga l t e c hni c a l a nd m a na ge r i a l s ki l l s w i t h i nt e r m i t t e nt a s s i s t a nc e f r om gove r nm e nt o f f i c i a l s 8 6 Y ounge r pe opl e m a i n l y r un t he T r us t s be c a us e t he y a r e m o r e e duc a t e d, bu t t he y l a c k t he s ki l l s t o ha ndl e l a r ge bus i ne s s T hi s i s pa r t of t he r e a s on s uc h r a m pa nt c o r r upt i on i s pr e s e nt i n s om e of t he C B O s T he r e ha ve be e n e f f or t s t o r e qui r e a t l e a s t a h i gh s c hool l e ve l e duc a t i on f or t he boa r d m e m be r s of a C B O b ut t ha t ha s m e t he a vy r e s i s t a nc e 8 7 S om e C B O s do not ha ve bookke e pe r s ; how c a n t he y ke e p t r a c k of c om pl i c a t e d e c onom i c a nd l e ga l m a t t e r s ? I n a ddi t i on t o l a c k of t r a i ni ng a nd t e c hni c a l s ki l l s m os t C B O s a r e r e m ot e a nd m a ke ve r y l i t t l e m one y, l i m i t i ng t he i r a bi l i t y t o de ve l op 8 6 H o w d o N a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s A f f e c t N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t ? 1 2 8 7 D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l A f f a i r s i n t e r v i e w

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52 T he di f f i c ul t i e s f a c i ng c om m uni t i e s i n t e r m s of t r a i ni ng, s ki l l s a nd s t a f f e xt e nd t o m oni t or i ng a nd e nf or c e m e nt i s s ue s U nde r t he ne w pol i c y ( a nd t he ol d one ) c om m un i t i e s a r e r e s pons i bl e f or m oni t or i ng t he c ons e r va t i on a c t i vi t i e s of C B O m e m be r s I t w oul d be i m pos s i bl e w i t hout a s ubs t a nt i a l a l l ot m e nt of f und s f or t he gove r nm e nt t o e f f e c t i ve l y m oni t or t he C B N R M pr ogr a m C om m uni t i e s do a s s e r t s om e c ont r ol ove r i l l e ga l hun t i ng pr a c t i c e s i f t he i ndi vi dua l hunt i ng i s be i ng w a s t e f ul a nd no t s ha r i ng w i t h t he w i de r c om m uni t y. S o m e a c t i ons a r e ne a r l y i m pos s i bl e f o r C B N R M pr oj e c t s t o c ont r ol e s pe c i a l l y w he n t he out s i de c om m uni t y i s not s uppor t i ve of c ons e r va t i on e f f o r t s T he N a t a S a nc t ua r y, w hi c h w a s s e t up a ga i ns t t he w i s h e s of a num be r of c a t t l e f a r m e r s pe r i odi c a l l y ha s t o de a l w i t h pe opl e c ut t i ng t he f e n c e of t he S a nc t ua r y t o l e t c a t t l e g r a z e on t he l a nd. 8 8 T he r e a r e r ogue c a t t l e r oa m i ng t he l a nd t ha t t he m a na ge r a nd s t a f f c a nnot ge t r i d o f I n s om e a r e a s C om m uni t y E s c or t G ui de s ha ve be e n d e ve l ope d t o de a l w i t h l a w e nf or c e m e nt a nd t he M a na ge m e nt O r i e nt e d M oni t or i ng S ys t e m ( M O M S ) i s de s i gne d t o m oni t or e nvi r onm e nt a l i m pa c t s of C B N R M pr oj e c t s T he D W N P i s i n c ha r ge of M O M S a nd ha s i m pl e m e nt e d t he pr ogr a m i n t hr e e pr oj e c t s i n N ga m i l a nd ( N or t he r n B ot s w a na ) M O M S r e pr e s e nt s a n e f f or t t o i nc r e a s e pa r t i c i pa t i on i n i nf o r m a t i on ga t he r i ng, a s ki ng c om m uni t y m e m be r s t o r e por t s i ght i ngs of r a r e s pe c i e s ga m e a ni m a l s p r obl e m a ni m a l s a nd t o he l p w i t h vi l l a ge m a ppi ng 8 9 M oni t or i ng on t he na t i ona l l e ve l i s not m uc h e a s i e r T he e nf or c e m e nt a nd i m pl e m e nt a t i on of t he E nv i r onm e nt a l I m pa c t A s s e s s m e nt ( E I A ) a c t of 2005 ha s c a us e d s e r i ous ba c kl og i n t he unde r s t a f f e d D E A m oni t or i ng de pa r t m e nt T he a c t r e qui r e s de ve l ope r s t o c om pl e t e a n E I A be f or e us i ng t he l a nd ( t h i s r e qui r e m e nt a ppl i e s t o s t a t e 8 8 N a t a B i r d S a n c t u a r y I n t e r v i e w s 8 9 I U C N W e b s i t e h t t p : / / w w w c b n r m b w / c b n r m b o t s w a n a / c o n s e r v a t i o n h t m l

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53 pr oj e c t s a s w e l l ) A t e a m of e xpe r t s c ont r a c t e d t o r e vi e w a l a nd us e pl a n pe r f or m s a n E I A T he e xpe r t s do not un f or t una t e l y, w or k t oge t he r but w or k i ndi vi dua l l y a nd t he n s e nd r e por t s t o t he m oni t or i ng of f i c e E xpe r t s w or k w i t h t he r e l e va nt t e c hni c a l de pa r t m e nt s ( m i ni ng, f o r i ns t a nc e ) A f t e r t he r e que s t t o de ve l op i s a ut hor i z e d, t he de ve l ope r c a n ge t a l i c e ns e T he m e t hod i s not i nt e gr a t e d, t he de pa r t m e nt r unni ng t he m oni t or i ng p r oc e s s i s s m a l l a nd unde r s t a f f e d, a nd t he r e i s l i t t l e f or c e t o m a ke t he E I A a c t r e t r oa c t i ve a nd a f f e c t de ve l opm e nt s s t a r t e d be f or e t he a c t w a s pa s s e d. 9 0 T e c hni c a l c a pa c i t y a nd t r a i ni ng i s l a c ki ng a c r os s t h e boa r d i n B ot s w a na A gr e a t de a l of e f f or t ( pr oba bl y by t he na t i ona l gove r nm e n t ) ne e ds t o be e x pe nde d t o b r i ng t e c hni c a l c e r t a i nt y t o t he C B N R M pr oc e s s D e s i gn P r i n c i pl e : E f f e c t i v e C on s e r v at i on C B N R M pr ogr am s ar e m e ant t o de c r e as e or e l i m i nat e t he c onf l i c t be t w e e n r ur al de v e l opm e nt and c ons e r v at i on. A t t i m e s how e v e r t he bi ol ogi c al and e nv i r onm e nt al e f f e c t s of t he pr ogr am ar e l os t i n di s c us s i ons of c i t i z e n par t i c i pat i on and e c onom i c i nc e nt i v e s I t i s not al w ay s c l e ar how C B N R M has af f e c t e d c ons e r v at i on. P oa c hi ng ha s de c r e a s e d i n B ot s w a na a nd m a ny di r e c t l y r e l a t e t hi s t o C B N R M S om e c om m uni t i e s a r e e xpe r i e nc i ng e c onom i c be n e f i t s S om e pr oj e c t s l i ke t he K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y, ha ve de ve l ope d i m pr e s s i ve e duc a t i ona l uni t s t ha t d r a w i n l a r ge num be r s of s c hool ki ds E ve n pr oj e c t s f oc us e d on e nvi r onm e nt a l e duc a t i on do no t a l w a ys ha ve a c om pr e he ns i ve c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m F o r e xa m pl e t he K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y di d not ha ve r e gul a t i ons f or e f f i c i e nt w a t e r us e a nd w a s t e di s pos a l 9 1 B e c a us e of B ot s w a na s l ow popul a t i on de ns i t y, i t doe s not ha v e t he s a m e pol l ut i on c onc e r ns i n m os t pl a c e s T our i s m ope r a t i ons i n t he O ka va ngo D e l t a a r e ha vi ng a ne ga t i ve e f f e c t on t he 9 0 D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l A f f a i r s M o n i t o r i n g O f f i c e I n t e r v i e w 9 1 K h a m a R h i n o S a n c t u a r y I n t e r v i e w

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54 s ur r oundi ng e nvi r onm e nt a nd C B N R M c oul d be m or e f oc us e d on pol l u t i on c ont r o l a s w e l l a s w i l dl i f e c ons e r va t i on. 9 2 I n a ddi t i on, m os t p r o gr a m s r e m a i n di s c onne c t e d f r om t he c om m uni t i e s be c a us e t he y pr ovi de no be ne f i t s a t a l l W he n t he C B O s do m a ke m one y, t he y a r e m or e l i ke l y t o di s t r i but e f unds on t he ba s i s of popul a r s uppor t r a t he r t ha n s t r i c t a dhe r e nc e t o c ons e r va t i on r ul e s C B N R M s e e m s t o be e f f e c t i ve a t c ha ngi ng opi ni ons on t he r e l a t i ve w or t h of w i l dl i f e but not a s e f f e c t i ve a t c ha ngi ng m ode s of be ha vi or 9 3 C on c l u s i o n B ot s w a na i s c l e a r l y e xpe r i e nc i ng obs t a c l e s i n a l l f i ve of t he di m e ns i ons out l i ne d by O s t r om a nd B l om qui s t I n f or m a t i on a nd c om m uni c a t i on a r e bot h m uddl e d a t t he l oc a l l e ve l c a us i ng pe r ve r s e i nc e nt i ve s f or gove r nm e nt of f i c i a l s a nd l oc a l e l i t e t o c i r c um ve nt t he pa r t i c i pa t i on a nd e m pow e r m e nt goa l s of C B N R M I n a ddi t i on t he l a c k of a s uppor t s ys t e m a nd e f f e c t i ve l y ne s t e d i ns t i t ut i ons l e s s e ns l oc a l pa r t i c i pa t i on opt i ons a nd l e a ve s s om e gr ou ps out of t he de c i s i on m a ki ng pr oc e s s T e c hni c a l pr obl e m s l a c k of gove r nm e nt s uppor t a nd l i m i t e d c a pa c i t y hi nde r t he m oni t or i n g a nd e nf or c e m e nt d i m e ns i ons of t he pr ogr a m a s w e l l a s t he di s t r i but i on of be ne f i t s T he r e a r e a gr e a t num be r of hur dl e s t o ov e r c om e b e f or e t he c r e a t i on of a n e m pow e r i ng a nd pa r t i c i pa t o r y c ons e r va t i on pr og r a m i n B ot s w a na S i nc e C B N R M w a s s t a r t e d a s a pi e c e m e a l pr ogr a m w i t h a l m os t no gov e r nm e nt i nt e r e s t t he i ns t i t ut i ona l pr oc e s s e s a r e c onvol ut e d a nd va r i a bl e N ow t ha t t h e gove r nm e nt i s m o r e i nvol ve d a nd a na t i ona l pol i c y i s be i ng i m pl e m e nt e d, t he i ns t i t ut i o ns a r e f ol l ow i ng f a m i l i a r pa t t e r ns of 9 2 T o u r i s m a n d E n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e O k a v a n g o D e l t a 1 2 0 9 3 H o w d o N a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s A f f e c t N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t S u c c e s s F a c t o r s i n C o m m u n i t y B a s e d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t i n t e r v i e w s

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55 c e nt r a l i z a t i on a nd na t i ona l gove r n m e nt c ont r ol C B N R M i n B ot s w a na i s not c ha l l e ngi ng t he pow e r s t r uc t ur e s i n t he c ount r y a nd t he m a r gi n a l i z e d m e m be r s of s oc i e t y r e m a i n m a r gi na l i z e d i n C B N R M s t r uc t ur e s a nd f or um s T he c ont i nue d us e of t he k got l a a s t he pr i m a r y pol i t i c a l s pa c e i n c om m uni t i e s c om bi ne d w i t h t he pa t e r na l i s t i c ha bi t s o f t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt s e ve r e l y l i m i t C B N R M s a bi l i t y t o c r e a t e ne w r ol e s r e s pons i bi l i t i e s a nd pol i t i c a l pow e r f or t he m a j o r i t y o f m e m be r s i n l oc a l c om m uni t i e s W i t hout c l os e a t t e nt i on t o t he s e ne w a ppr oa c he s a nd de s i gn p r i nc i pl e s t he i m pa c t of C B N R M on c ons e r va t i on a nd s us t a i na bl e us e of r e s our c e s i n B ot s w a na w i l l m or e l i m i t e d t ha n i t c oul d be a nd ne i t he r be ha vi or nor pe r s pe c t i ve w i l l c ha ng e s ubs t a nt i a l l y.

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56 C h ap te r 4 C omp a r at i v e I n s i gh ts fr o m Z i mb a b w e an d N a mi b i a B l ue pr i nt de ve l opm e nt pr og r a m s i m pl e m e nt e d uni f or m l y do not w or k. T he r e i s no que s t i on t ha t t he c ont e xt a nd s oc i a l m a ke up of a c om m uni t y a nd c ount r y a f f e c t t he i m pl e m e nt a t i on a nd f unc t i on of pr ogr a m s l i ke C B N R M A s s e e n i n t he l a s t c ha pt e r B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m i s put unde r uni que s t r a i n by t he e c onom i c a nd s oc i a l pr e c e de nt s s e t by t he po s t i nde pe nde nc e gove r nm e nt a nd t he c ul t ur a l c onnot a t i ons of C B N R M s pol i t i c a l s pa c e H ow e ve r c l os e a t t e nt i on t o c ont e xt doe s not i nva l i da t e t he us e f ul ne s s of c om pa r i ng c or e f unc t i ons of s i m i l a r pr og r a m s a nd t he out c om e s pr oduc e d by c ont e xt a nd ba s i c m e c ha ni s m s of C B N R M N a m i bi a s f a i r l y e f f e c t i ve m e t hods of i m pl e m e nt i ng i t s ve r s i on of C B N R M a nd t he i de ol ogi c a l s uc c e s s e s a nd pi t f a l l s of Z i m ba bw e s C om m una l A r e a s M a na ge m e nt P r ogr a m m e f or I ndi ge nous R e s our c e s ( C A M P F I R E ) bot h c ont a i n pot e nt i a l t r oubl e s hoot i ng opt i ons f or i m pr ovi ng pa r t i c i pa t i on i n B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m Z i m b a b w e Z i m ba bw e l i ke m os t c ount r i e s i n s out he r n A f r i c a e ndur e d a pr ot e c t i oni s t c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m i m p l e m e nt e d by t he B r i t i s h. T he B r i t i s h C r ow n m a i nt a i ne d r e s pons i bi l i t y f or a nd t he r i ght t o w i l dl i f e i n R hode s i a a f t e r w hi t e s e t t l e m e nt be ga n. T he c r ow n de t e r m i ne d t ha t w i l dl i f e c oul d onl y be hunt e d w i t h pe r m i t s a nd t he opt i on of

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57 ge t t i ng a pe r m i t w a s onl y t r ul y a va i l a bl e t o w hi t e s e t t l e r s T he C r ow n c r e a t e d a n i s ol a t i oni s t t ype of c ons e r va t i o n w hi c h s e pa r a t e d l a ndow ne r s f r om w i l dl i f e e s s e nt i a l l y a pr e s e r va t i oni s t a ge nda T he i ndi ge nous Z i m ba bw e a ns w e r e f or c e d out o f be ne f i t i ng f r om w i l d l i f e by t he l a c k o f f i r e a r m s opa que l e gi s l a t i on, a nd t he ne w i l l e ga l i t y of t r a ps T he c ol oni a l gove r n m e nt s e c t i one d of f t he T r i ba l T r us t L a nds i n or de r t o m a r gi na l i z e i ndi ge nous Z i m ba bw e a ns f r om t he r i c h a gr i c ul t ur a l l a nd. F r om t hi s s pr ung a s t r uggl e ove r l a nd r i ght s t ha t i s by no m e a ns e nde d, a nd a h e a vy s uppor t of c om m e r c i a l a gr i c ul t ur e 9 4 N ot onl y di d t he C r ow n s c ons e r va t i on pl a n c r e a t e e ve n m or e t e ns i ons be t w e e n t he w hi t e s e t t l e r s a nd i ndi ge nous pe opl e i t a l s o f a i l e d e nt i r e l y t o pr ot e c t w i l dl i f e T he m a j or i t y of pe opl e w e r e not i nt e r e s t e d i n s a vi ng w i l dl i f e a nd m a ny w e r e dow nr i ght hos t i l e t ow a r ds a ni m a l s T he l e gi s l a t i on t o pr ot e c t w i l dl i f e w a s m a i nl y i gnor e d a nd e nf or c e m e nt w a s l a c ki ng. F u r t he r m o r e ve t e r i na r i a ns a nd a gr i c ul t ur a l i s t s s uppor t e d t he w i de s pr e a d de s t r uc t i on of di s e a s e s pr e a di ng a ni m a l s a nd t he C r ow n f ol l ow e d t h r ough w i t h t hi s by i ndi s c r i m i na t e l y ki l l i ng f o r t s e t s e f l y c ont r ol F a r m e r s w ho r e c e i ve d no c om pe ns a t i on f or da m a ge c a us e d by w i l dl i f e ki l l e d a ni m a l s out s i de of p r ot e c t e d a r e a s H a bi t a t s w e r e not i n t he c ons e r va t i on pl a n a t a l l s o f a r m e r s c oul d r e duc e w i l dl i f e pr e s e r ve s t hr ough l a nd c l e a r a nc e a nd f e nc i ng w i t h no pr obl e m T he us e of w i l dl i f e w a s a r e c r e a t i ona l s por t f o r t he w hi t e s e t t l e r s but A f r i c a ns w e r e bl a m e d f or de gr a da t i on o f t he e nvi r onm e nt 9 5 9 4 R o s a l e e n D u f f y K i l l i n g f o r C o n s e r v a t i o n : W i l d l i f e P o l i c y i n Z i m b a b w e 2 0 0 0 O x f o r d : J a m e s C u r r y 1 0 9 5 G r a h a m C h i l d W i l d l i f e a n d P e o p l e : T h e Z i m b a b w e a n S u c c e s s 1 9 9 5 N e w Y o r k : W i s d o m F o u n d a t i o n 4 9

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58 A f t e r pr ot e c t i oni s m f a i l e d s o m i s e r a bl y, t he hi gh c our t pa s s e d l e gi s l a t i on t ha t a l l o w e d l a ndow ne r s t o s hoot ve r m i n a ni m a l s on t h e i r l a nd ( na m e l y, a l l he r bi vo r e s ) H ow e ve r t he ki l l e d a ni m a l s c oul d not be s ol d. W i l dl i f e c oul d onl y be f i na nc i a l l y vi a bl e f or t he s t a t e T he r e w a s a l s o, s t i l l no c om pe ns a t i on f or da m a ge c a us e d by w i l dl i f e E s s e nt i a l l y, w i l dl i f e c ons e r va t i on w a s f or t he r i c h, pow e r f ul a nd i nc l i ne d. 9 6 A f t e r i nde pe nde nc e t he w i de va r i e t y of v i e w s a bout c ons e r va t i on r a nge d f r om pur e pr e s e r va t i oni s t t o non r e s t r i c t e d w i l d l i f e us e T he pr i nc i pl e s t ha t e m e r ge d f r om t he c ons e r va t i on de ba t e w e r e a s f ol l ow s : w i l dl i f e i s a r e ne w a bl e r e s our c e t o be c ons e r ve d a nd us e d, l a ndow ne r s m us t be i nvol ve d i nc e nt i ve s ne e d t o be p r ovi de d t ha t r e f l e c t m a r ke t pr i c e s a nd t ha t t he gove r nm e nt m us t pr ot e c t bi odi ve r s i t y not j us t t h r ough r e s t r i c t i ve l e gi s l a t i on. 9 7 H ow e ve r m uc h of t he l e gi s l a t i on a nd s t r uc t ur e of c ons e r va t i on f a i l e d t o c ha nge T he C om m una l L a nd F or e s t P r oduc e A c t of 1928, f o r i ns t a nc e w a s a m e nde d i n 1987, but r e m a i ne d a l m os t i de nt i c a l t o t he c ol oni a l r ul e 9 8 B r i e f O v e r v i e w of C A M P F I R E D e s pi t e t he l a c k of m uc h c onc r e t e c ha nge unt i l w e l l a f t e r i nde pe nde nc e t he r e w a s a l a r ge c ha nge i n i de ol ogy i n t he 1960s T he D e pa r t m e nt of N a t i ona l P a r ks a nd W i l d L i f e M a na ge m e nt ( T he P a r ks D e pa r t m e nt ) t ook up a pr ogr e s s i ve s t a nc e t ow a r ds w i l dl i f e c ons e r va t i on t ha t r e s ul t e d i n l e gi s l a t i on t ha t s e t t he s t a ge f or p l a c i ng e c onom i c i nc e nt i ve s 9 6 W i l d l i f e a n d P e o p l e 5 0 9 7 W i l d l i f e a n d P e o p l e 5 2 9 8 L T C h i t s i k e D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n a n d D e v o l u t i o n o f C A M P F I R E i n Z i m b a b w e 2 0 0 0 C e n t r e f o r A p p l i e d S o c i a l S c i e n c e s U n i v e r s i t y o f Z i m b a b w e 1 1

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59 on w i l dl i f e T he c ha nge i n t he 1960s e m a na t e d f r o m a num be r of F ul br i ght s c hol a r s a nd l e a de r s of t he p r a gm a t i c t a ke on c ons e r va t i on s uc h a s A l do L e opol d 9 9 T he 1975 P a r ks a nd W i l dl i f e A c t e s t a bl i s he d t he c onc e pt of s us t a i na bl e us e i n Z i m ba bw e s c ons e r va t i on a ppr oa c h. I t a l s o d i f f e r e nt i a t e d be t w e e n c om m e r c i a l a nd s us t e na nc e poa c he r s T he P a r ks a nd W i l dl i f e A c t p ut t he l a ndow ne r s of c om m e r c i a l f a r m s i n t he pos i t i on of l e g a l a ut ho r i t y ove r w i l dl i f e m a na ge m e nt a nd t ook s om e o f t ha t r e s pons i bi l i t y f r om t he s t a t e T he A c t di d p r e s e r ve s om e of t he na t i ona l pa r ks pa r t i a l l y be c a us e t he pa r ks br i ng i n a l ot of r e ve nue t o t he s t a t e H ow e ve r t he c ont i nua t i on of na t i ona l pa r ks w a s not c ongr ue nt w i t h t he r e s t of t he na t i ona l pol i c y on c ons e r va t i on. T he l oc a l pe opl e w e r e e xc l ude d f r om t he pa r ks w hi c h i n t ur n r e qui r e d pa r a m i l i t a r y f or c e s t o pa t r ol t he bo r de r s a ga i ns t poa c he r s T he a c t a l s o f a i l e d t o p r ovi de t he s a m e r i ght s of us e t o l oc a l c om m uni t i e s a s i t di d t o c om m e r c i a l f a r m s 1 0 0 T he i de a of s us t a i na bl e ut i l i z a t i on i s c r i t i c a l f o r a l l of Z i m ba bw e s c ons e r va t i on c hoi c e s a nd f or m s t he ke y i de ol ogi c a l f ounda t i on f or C A M P F I R E S us t a i na bl e ut i l i z a t i on i s t he r e gul a t e d us e of na t ur a l r e s our c e s t ha t l e a ve s e nough of t he r e s our c e f or i t t o r e pl e ni s h. T he c onc e pt a l l ow s unl i ke l y a l l i a nc e s t o oc c ur a m ong a l l of t he m a i n pl a ye r s i n t he c ons e r va t i on a r e na T our i s t m i ni s t r i e s l oc a l s t a t e a nd non gove r nm e nt a l or ga ni z a t i ons c a n a l l a gr e e m os t of t he t i m e on s us t a i na bl e us e Z i m ba bw e s pr og r a m s ope r a t e on t he i de a t ha t w i l dl i f e c a nnot s ur vi ve i n a de ve l opi ng e c onom y un l e s s i t i s e c onom i c a l l y s e l f s uppor t i ng a nd t he y ha ve m a i nt a i ne d t ha t pos i t i on up t o t he pr e s e nt I n t he l a t e 1970s T he P a r ks D e pa r t m e nt be ga n a c om m una l w i l dl i f e c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m i n S ube ngw e W hi l e t hi s pl a n f a i l e d due t o l a c k of f undi ng a nd c oor di na t i on 9 9 S i m o n M e t c a l f e C A M P F I R E : Z i m b a b w e s C o m m u n a l A r e a s M a n a g e m e n t P r o g r a m m e f o r I n d i g e n o u s R e s o u r c e s 1 9 9 3 C e n t r e f o r A p p l i e d S c i e n c e s U n i v e r s i t y o f Z i m b a b w e 2 1 0 0 D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n a n d D e v o l u t i o n o f C A M P F I R E 8

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60 a m ongs t t he of f i c i a l a c t or s i t dr e w c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l pe opl e t o t he i de a of c om m un i t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i on, i nc l udi ng M a r s ha l l M ur phe e w ho t h e n ha d s i gni f i c a nt i n f l ue nc e i n t he dr a f t i ng o f C A M P F I R E 1 0 1 A l s o, i n 1978 t he P a r ks D e pa r t m e nt s pons or e d a pr ogr a m c a l l e d W i l dl i f e I ndus t r i e s N e w D e ve l opm e nt f or A l l ( W I N D F A L L ) t ha t p r ovi de d t he l oc a l pe opl e l i vi ng ne a r w i l dl i f e r e s e r v e s e c onom i c c om pe ns a t i on f r om e l e pha nt c ul l i ng. T hi s pr ogr a m w a s not t e r r i bl y s uc c e s s f ul e i t he r a nd i t s de m i s e w a s bl a m e d on t he l a c k of pa r t i c i pa t i on of t he l oc a l i ndi vi dua l s 1 0 2 I n 1982, t he P a r ks a nd W i l dl i f e A c t w a s upda t e d t o na m e t he R ur a l D i s t r i c t C ounc i l s i n c om m una l a r e a s a s a ppr opr i a t e a ut ho r i t i e s f or m a na gi ng w i l dl i f e s e t t i ng t he s t a ge f or C A M P F I R E T he dr a f t of t he pr og r a m w a s f i na l i z e d i n 1986 a nd t he f i r s t a r e a s w e r e e s t a bl i s he d t hr e e ye a r s l a t e r i n t he G ur uve a nd N ya m i nya m i di s t r i c t s S i nc e C A M P F I R E s i nc e pt i on, t h i r t y t h r e e pe r c e nt o f t he l a nd i n Z i m ba bw e ha s be c om e l a nd f or w i l dl i f e a nd t he r e ha s be e n a n i nc r e a s e i n s t oc k a nd a de c r e a s e i n s us t e na nc e poa c hi ng. 1 0 3 I m pl e m e nt a t i on of C A M P F I R E c a n be br oke n do w n i nt o t h r e e pha s e s T he f i r s t ph a s e w a s t he c l os e s t t o t he i de ol ogi c a l vi s i on of c om m uni t y ba s e d na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt I t w a s e nt hus i a s t i c a l l y r e c e i ve d a nd C A M P F I R E w a s buoye d up by i t s pl a c e a s a n i nnova t i ve a nd pr og r e s s i ve ne w pr ogr a m I t w a s i m pl e m e nt e d on t he s i m pl e a s s um pt i on t ha t c om m uni t i e s i f t he y ha ve c l e a r bo unda r i e s a r e m os t l y hom oge nous a nd i f l oc a t e d ne xt t o w i l dl i f e pa r ks a r e c a pa bl e o f m a na gi ng r e s our c e s C ons e que nt l y, t he f i r s t c om m uni t i e s c hos e n f o r C A M P F I R E w e r e c ohe s i ve c om m uni t i e s w i t h c om m on 1 0 1 C A M P F I R E 2 1 0 2 J o c e l y n A l e x a n d e r a n d J o A n n M c G r e g o r W i l d l i f e a n d P o l i t i c s : C A M P F I R E i n Z i m b a b w e 2 0 0 0 D e v e l o p m e n t a n d C h a n g e 3 1 6 0 5 6 2 7 3 1 0 3 K i l l i n g f o r C o n s e r v a t i o n 9 1

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61 goa l s 1 0 4 I m pl e m e nt a t i on a l s o t a r ge t e d s m a l l e r a r e a s i n s t e p w i t h t he a da pt i ve m a na ge m e nt a ppr oa c h. I t w a s qui c kl y r e a l i z e d t ha t c om m uni t y ba s e d r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt w a s a f a r m o r e c om pl i c a t e d p r oc e s s t ha t c oul d not be di s a s s oc i a t e d f r om t he di s t r i c t s t a t e pr i va t e s e c t or a nd i nt e r na t i ona l i nt e r e s t s T hi s l e d t o t he s e c ond pha s e of C A M P F I R E w hi c h s t e ppe d ba c k f r om c om m uni t y m a na ge m e nt t o c o m a na ge m e nt T he s e c ond pha s e i l l um i na t e d t ha t w i l dl i f e m a na ge m e nt i s a f f e c t e d by a l l s e c t or s of s oc i e t y, f r om t he l oc a l t o t he i n t e r na t i ona l F or i ns t a nc e s de ba t e s a bout t he i vor y ba n, w hi c h be ga n a t t he i n t e r na t i ona l l e ve l ha d a s i z e a bl e e f f e c t on C A M P F I R E a nd w r e s t e d s om e c ont r ol of e l e pha nt popul a t i ons a w a y f r om t h e l oc a l pe opl e I t w a s de c i de d t ha t t oo m a ny s t a ke hol de r s ha d v e s t e d i nt e r e s t i n w i l dl i f e m a na ge m e nt a nd t he c a pa bi l i t y o f t he vi l l a ge a nd w a r d l e ve l t o e ve nt ua l l y c ont r ol w i l dl i f e c ons um pt i on w a s que s t i one d. T he c e nt r a l i z e d na t ur e of Z i m ba bw e a n na t i ona l pol i t i c s i n t he l e ga l a nd a dm i ni s t r a t i ve a r e a s a l s o put a da m pe r on t he c onc e pt of t r ue de vol ut i o n of pow e r 1 0 5 C A M P F I R E i n i t s t hi r d pha s e be c a m e a s oc i a l m ove m e nt I n t hi s m i ddl e a ge a s H a s l e r c a l l s i t C A M P F I R E w a s c l os e l y i nt e r c onne c t e d w i t h t he l oc a l di s t r i c t na t i ona l a nd i n t e r na t i ona l I m pl e m e nt a t i on of d e v ol ut i on t o t he vi l l a ge a nd w a r d l e ve l ha d s t a l l e d, but t he pr og r a m r os e t o i m pr e s s i ve l e v e l s of pr om i ne nc e T hi s pha s e w a s know n a s t he gr e a t e r C A M P F I R E m ove m e nt 1 0 6 I t ha d s ubs t a nt i a l s uppor t f r om a l l a c t or s a nd pr oduc e d a pus h t ow a r ds de m oc r a t i z a t i on a nd s oc i a l a w a ke ni ng. 1 0 4 R i c h a r d H a s l e r A n O v e r v i e w o f t h e S o c i a l E c o l o g i c a l a n d E c o n o m i c A c h i e v e m e n t s a n d C h a l l e n g e s o f Z i m b a b w e s C A M P F I R E P r o g r a m m e 1 9 9 9 E v a l u a t i n g E d e n S e r i e s D i s c u s s i o n P a p e r 3 4 1 0 5 O v e r v i e w o f t h e S o c i a l E c o l o g i c a l a n d E c o n o m i c A c h i e v e m e n t s 5 1 0 6 O v e r v i e w o f t h e S o c i a l E c o l o g i c a l a n d E c o n o m i c A c h i e v e m e n t s 6

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62 P ar t i c i pat i on i n C A M P F I R E C A M P F I R E w a s i m pl e m e nt e d t hr ough a pr oc e s s o f a da pt i ve m a na ge m e nt t ha t w a s m e a nt t o be f l e xi b l e ; pr og r a m s w e r e s t a r t e d on a s m a l l s c a l e a nd m ove d f or w a r d c a ut i ous l y. T he gove r n m e nt a nd c om m un i t i e s di s c a r d e d pr ogr a m s t ha t w e r e not s uc c e s s f ul a nd s t r e ngt he ne d a nd s pr e a d t hos e t ha t w or ke d. H ow e ve r Z i m ba bw e s pr ogr a m s t a l l e d be f o r e de vol vi ng pow e r t o t he vi l l a ge a nd w a r d l e ve l t he r e by ke e pi ng m os t of t he l oc a l pe opl e i nvol ve d i n t he pr ogr a m a s pa s s i ve r e c i pi e nt s of w i l dl i f e be ne f i t s M a ny of t he pr ob l e m s t ha t B ot s w a na ha s e nc ount e r e d, s uc h a s c ondi t i ona l c ont r ol ove r l a nd a nd unc l e a r r i ght s a nd r e s pons i bi l i t i e s a r e pr e s e nt i n Z i m ba bw e s pr ogr a m onl y a t one l e ve l of gove r na nc e hi ghe r T he R ur a l D i s t r i c t C ou nc i l s ( R D C s ) a r e t he l e ga l a ut hor i t y ove r w i l dl i f e r e s our c e s i n c ha r ge of di s t r i but i ng be ne f i t s t o t he vi l l a ge a nd w a r d l e ve l T he R D C s a r e r e s pons i bl e t o t he D e pa r t m e nt of N a t i ona l P a r ks a nd W i l d l i f e M a na ge m e nt ( D N P W L M ) T he R D C s do not ha ve f ul l c ont r ol ove r t he l a nd t he y s upe r vi s e r a t he r t he D N P W L M doe s m a ki ng t he vi l l a ge r s t w i c e r e m ove d f r om a ny a ut hor i t y ove r w i l dl i f e r e s our c e s V i l l a ge s do not c ont r ol how be ne f i t s a r e a l l oc a t e d. S uppos e dl y, t he vi l l a ge c om m uni t i e s c a n c hos e t o r e c e i ve i ndi vi dua l c a s h be ne f i t s or de ve l opm e nt pr oj e c t s l i ke s c hool s but m a ny R D C s r e f us e t o s uppor t i ndi vi dua l c a s h pa ym e nt s I n f a c t vi l l a ge s of t e n ge t no be ne f i t s be c a us e t he m one y r e m a i ns t r a ppe d a t t he D i s t r i c t L e ve l 1 0 7 D i s t r i c t c ounc i l s o f t e n t a ke t oo hi gh a pe r c e nt a ge of r e ve nue f r om hunt i ng a nd s a f a r i c ont r a c t s a nd a r e t o o s l ow i n di s bur s i ng t he f unds B e t w e e n 1989 a nd 2001, t he c ounc i l s ke pt t hi r t y one pe r c e nt of t he w i l dl i f e r e ve nue s i n a ddi t i on t o a 1 0 7 C A M P F I R E 2 1

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63 s i gni f i c a nt a m ount of undi s t r i but e d f unds a f i f t e e n pe r c e nt l e vy f or a dm i ni s t r a t i ve f e e s a nd 4. 1 m i l l i on U S D f o r w i l dl i f e m a na ge m e nt 1 0 8 V i l l a ge s a l s o l a c k c ont r ol ove r de c i s i ons on how t o us e w i l dl i f e U nl i ke N a m i bi a s or ( t o a c e r t a i n e xt e nt ) B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m t he R D C s ha nd dow n ut i l i z a t i on pl a ns t o t he vi l l a ge s T he r e a r e de m oc r a t i c a l l y e l e c t e d W a r d a nd V i l l a ge D e ve l opm e nt C om m i t t e e s but t he y l a c k a ny pow e r be yond a dvi s e m e nt 1 0 9 A l s o, c r i t i c a l i s t ha t c om m uni t i e s pl a gue d by pr obl e m a ni m a l s t ha t a r e de s t r uc t i ve a nd da nge r ous do not ha ve e a s y a c c e s s t o t he e qui pm e nt t o de a l w i t h t hos e a ni m a l s s i nc e i t i s a l l c onc e nt r a t e d i n t he d i s t r i c t c o unc i l s ha nds 1 1 0 T he s t r uc t ur e o f C A M P F I R E i s not e s pe c i a l l y c on duc i ve f or pa r t i c i pa t i on. T he gove r nm e nt s e t t he pr og r a m up w i t h t he i de a of c r e a t i ng ne w f or m a l i ns t i t ut i ons t o m oni t or a nd i m pl e m e nt c ons e r va t i on. W hi l e t hi s i n i t s e l f i s not a pr ob l e m ( t he c ons e r va nc y s ys t e m i n N a m i bi a i s ba s e d on t he s a m e pr e m i s e a nd w or ks ) C A M P F I R E ne gl e c t s t he t r a di t i ona l pow e r s t r uc t ur e s a nd i ns t i t u t i ons a l r e a dy i n pl a c e I t bypa s s e s t r a di t i ona l a ut h or i t i e s A l s o, t he w a r d bounda r i e s t ha t t he gove r nm e nt e s t a bl i s he d do not ne c e s s a r i l y f i t t he vi l l a ge c om m un i t i e s pr o m ot i ng c onf l i c t s w i t hi n t he c om m uni t i e s 1 1 1 I nc r e a s e d de vol ut i on di d oc c ur i n s om e di s t r i c t s r e l uc t a nt l y a nd i nc ons i s t e nt l y, i n t he l a t e 1990s S om e w a r ds w e r e p r ovi de d w i t h m or e c ont r ol ove r t he f i na nc i a l a s pe c t of C A M P F I R E T he s e w a r ds ha ve e xpe r i e nc e d di f f i c ul t i e s w i t h a c c ount a bi l i t y a nd c r e a t i ng f i na nc i a l s ys t e m s S om e of t he dono r s m a de e f f o r t s t o pr ovi de t e c hni c a l a s s i s t a nc e t o t he w a r ds i n c r e a t i ng e f f e c t i ve f i na nc i a l s ys t e m s U nf o r t una t e l y, s i nc e 2000 t he pol i t i c a l a nd e c onom i c s i t ua t i on i n Z i m ba bw e ha s be e n s o di r e t ha t m oni t or i ng a t t he di s t r i c t l e ve l a nd 1 0 8 T h e C A M P F I R E P r o g r a m i n Z i m b a b w e 7 8 0 1 0 9 D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n a n d D e v o l u t i o n o f C A M P F I R E i n Z i m b a b w e 2 9 1 1 0 D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n a n d D e v o l u t i o n o f C A M P F I R E i n Z i m b a b w e 3 2 1 1 1 D a v i d H u l m e a n d M a r s h a l l W M u r p h r e e e d A f r i c a n W i l d l i f e a n d L i v e l i h o o d s : T h e P r o m i s e a n d P e r f o r m a n c e o f C o m m u n i t y C o n s e r v a t i o n 2 0 0 1 J a m e s C u r r e y 4 9

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64 donor he l p ha ve ne a r l y di s a ppe a r e d, a l l ow i ng c or r upt i on t o f l our i s h a t t he w a r d l e ve l I n m os t pl a c e s t he w a r d c om m i t t e e s ha ve be c om e pl a c e s of pol i t i c i a ns w ho a r e s uppor t i ng t he c e nt r a l gove r nm e nt a nd t a ki ng a w a y t he pow e r s of t he l oc a l pe opl e a ga i n pul l i ng C A M P F I R E a w a y f r om be i ng a t r ue c om m uni t y b a s e d pr ogr a m 1 1 2 M oni t or i ng a n d quot a s e t t i ng ha ve be e n non pa r t i c i pa t or y i n C A M P F I R E f o r t he m os t pa r t a s w e l l T he di s t r i c t s us e d a dva nc e d t e c hnol ogi e s l i ke a e r i a l s ur ve ys t o ke e p t r a c k of ga m e a s ys t e m t ha t w a s bot h t oo e xpe ns i ve t o be s e l f s us t a i ni ng a nd c l os e d o f f t he quot a s e t t i ng pr oc e s s t o t he vi l l a ge l e ve l H ow e ve r t he r e ha ve be e n s uc c e s s f ul i f s l ow goi ng, a t t e m pt s t o i nvol ve l oc a l c om m uni t i e s i n r e s our c e m on i t or i ng a nd quot a s e t t i ng. T h r ough P a r t i c i pa t or y T e c hnol ogy D e ve l o pm e nt s om e di s t r i c t s ha ve i nc or por a t e d c om m uni t y m e m be r s ( e m pl oye d ga m e gua r ds w i l dl i f e m oni t o r s a nd vol unt e e r s ) i n ga m e c e ns us e s a nd a nnua l c ount s of bi g ga m e T he i nf or m a t i on c ol l e c t e d i s di s s e m i na t e d i n a hi ghl y vi s ua l a nd i nt e r a c t i ve w a y i ns ur i ng t he i nc or po r a t i on o f a l l e duc a t i on l e ve l s T he c ol l e c t i on of da t a by w a r d a n d vi l l a ge l e ve l s ha s pr ovi de d bot h va l ua bl e i nf or m a t i on f or t he p r ogr a m a nd a n i nc r e a s e d s e ns e of ow ne r s hi p ove r t he w i l dl i f e t ha t w a s pr e vi ous l y l a c ki ng. 1 1 3 I f Z i m ba bw e s pr og r a m w e r e e xa m i ne d us i ng O s t r om a nd B l om qui s t s f i ve di m e n s i ons w ha t s e e m s t o be l a c ki ng t he m os t i s s ym m e t r y. T he di s t r i but i on s c he m e f o r pr of i t s a nd r e s pons i bi l i t i e s a r e not ba l a nc e d, l e a vi ng l oc a l pe opl e di s c onne c t e d f r om t he pr ogr a m S i nc e c ont r ol of t he f unds a nd m os t o f t h e pl a nni ng i s l e f t i n t he ha nds of di s t r i c t of f i c i a l s i nf o r m a t i on a nd c om m uni c a t i on a r e a l w a ys f l ow i ng m a i nl y i n one 1 1 2 I v a n B o n d a n d E v e r i s t o M a p d e z a P o l i t i c a l D e a d l o c k a n d D e v o l v e d W i l d l i f e M a n a g e m e n t i n Z i m b a b w e : T h e C a s e o f N e n y u n g a W a r d 2 0 0 6 J o u r n a l o f E n v i r o n m e n t a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 1 5 ( 4 ) 4 0 7 4 2 7 4 2 1 1 1 3 A f r i c a n W i l d l i f e a n d L i v e l i h o o d s 2 6 7

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65 di r e c t i on, gi v i ng l oc a l pe opl e l i t t l e i nf l ue nc e on t h e w a y t he pr og r a m i s r un. A l t hough m oni t or i ng w a s be gi nni ng t o be m or e pa r t i c i pa t or y i t i s di f f i c ul t t o t e l l how m uc h o f a n e f f e c t i t w oul d ha ve ha d s i nc e t he pol i t i c a l a nd e c onom i c c l i m a t e i n Z i m ba bw e ha s be e n s o dys f unc t i ona l P l a c i ng t he c i t i z e ns i n a pa s s i ve r ol e a nd not ba l a nc i ng t he di s t r i but i on of be ne f i t s how e ve r w a s ne ga t i ve l y i m pa c t i ng t he pr ogr a m be f or e Z i m ba bw e s pol i t i c a l t ur m oi l N am i b i a B y 1967, N a m i bi a s w i l dl i f e popu l a t i on w a s de c r e a s i ng a t a r a pi d pa c e T he s t a t e ha d de c l a r e d a l l ga m e a s s t a t e pr ope r t y a nd l e f t N a m i bi a ns no r i ght s t o us e w i l dl i f e or e ve n pr ot e c t t he m s e l ve s f r om pr obl e m a ni m a l s ; t h os e w ho ki l l e d pr obl e m a ni m a l s ( m a i nl y l i ons a nd e l e pha nt s ) w e r e a c c us e d of poa c hi ng. I n or de r t o r e m e dy t he s i t ua t i on, t he gove r nm e nt pa s s e d l e gi s l a t i on i n 1967 t ha t a l l o w e d c om m e r c i a l f a r m e r s c ondi t i ona l r i ght s ove r t he w i l dl i f e on t he i r l a nds a s l ong a s t h e f a r m e r s m e t c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a N o e qui va l e nt l e gi s l a t i on w a s pa s s e d f or c om m una l l a nds S i m i l a r t o t he s i t ua t i on i n B ot s w a na pr i va t e l a nd r i gh t s w e r e pr i z e d ove r c o m m una l one s l e a di ng t o t he f e nc i ng of f a r m s a nd r a nc he s T he S a n i n N a m i bi a w e r e pus h e d f r om t he i r l a nds j us t a s t he y w e r e i n B ot s w a na T he s oc i a l s ys t e m of t he S a n i n t he a r e a w a s not a m e na bl e t o p r i va t e l a nd ow ne r s hi p a nd c om m una l l e gi s l a t i on s i m pl y di d n ot e xi s t S e ve r e dr ought i n t he 1970s pus he d t he S a n ( a nd o t he r nom a di c a nd pa s t or a l g r oups l i ke t he H e r e r o a nd H i m ba ) i nt o

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66 s ubs i s t e n c e hunt i ng a nd, a s t he ga m e de c r e a s e d, i n t o r e l i a nc e on w e l f a r e a nd m i s s i ona r y a i d. 1 1 4 I n t he e a r l y 1980s s om e c om m un i t i e s r e s ponde d t o t he w i l dl i f e c r i s i s by i ns t i t ut i ng C om m uni t y G a m e G ua r ds ( C G G s ) C G G s w e r e a ppoi nt e d by t r a di t i ona l l e a de r s t o s t op poa c hi ng. P a t r ol l i ng a l l oc a t e d a r e a s a t l e a s t onc e a m ont h t he y w e r e not m e a nt t o a r r e s t poa c he r s t he m s e l ve s but r e por t s us pi c i ous a c t i vi t i e s t o t he t r a di t i ona l a ut hor i t i e s a nd m oni t or w i l dl i f e l e ve l s 1 1 5 I n 1990 a s c om m uni t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i on w a s e m e r gi ng a s a l e a di ng c ons e r va t i on s t r a t e gy a r oun d s out he r n A f r i c a t he ne w l y i nde pe nde nt N a m i bi a n s t a t e be ga n a t hr e e ye a r s ur ve y of pe opl e l i vi ng w i t h w i l dl i f e on c om m una l l a nds t o e s t a bl i s h t he di r e c t i on t he s t a t e s h oul d t a ke I n 1994, c om m uni t i e s e m pl oye d w om e n a s C om m uni t y R e s our c e M oni t or s i n a ddi t i on t o t he C G G s F i na l l y i n 1996 t he s t a t e pa s s e d l e gi s l a t i on t o gi ve c om m una l l a nds t he s a m e c ondi t i ona l r i ght s ove r w i l dl i f e t ha t c om m e r c i a l f a r m s ha d ha d s i nc e 1967 t hus s e t t i ng t he s t a ge f or C B N R M B r i e f O v e r v i e w of C B N R M H i s t or y I n N a m i bi a C B N R M i s ba s e d on t he f or m a t i on of c ons e r va nc i e s S i m i l a r t o B ot s w a na s C B O s c ons e r va nc i e s a r e a r e a s of l a nd c l e a r l y de f i ne d by r e s i de nt s w ho ha ve de c i de d t o w or k t oge t he r t o e s t a bl i s h a c ons e r va t i on r e s e r ve ( t ha t c a n be on c om m una l or c om m e r c i a l l a nd) R e s i de nt s ne e d t o r e gi s t e r w i t h t he c ons e r va nc y a nd t he n t he a r e a i s m a ppe d, bounda r i e s a r e e s t a bl i s he d, a nd a c ons t i t u t i on a nd l a nd us e m a na ge m e nt p l a n a r e dr a w n. A f t e r f u l f i l l i ng t he r e qui r e m e nt s t he pot e nt i a l c ons e r va nc y s e nds a n a ppl i c a t i on t o 1 1 4 M a r g a r e t J a c o b s o h n a n d G a r t h O w e n S m i t h I n t e g r a t i n g C o n s e r v a t i o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t : A N a m i b i a n C a s e S t u d y 2 0 0 3 N o m a d i c P e o p l e s V o l 7 9 6 1 1 5 A f r i c a n W i l d l i f e a n d L i v e l i h o o d s 1 6 3

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67 t he M i ni s t e r of E nvi r onm e nt a nd T our i s m ( M E T ) I f t he c ons e r va nc y w a nt s t o be c om e r e gi s t e r e d f or t r ophy hunt i ng o r f or t ou r i s m i t m us t r e gi s t e r f or t hos e a c t i vi t i e s s e pa r a t e l y. 1 1 6 S i nc e not a l l t he pe opl e i n a c om m una l a r e a a r e ne c e s s a r i l y r e gi s t e r e d w i t h t he c ons e r va nc y, t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt s e t up W i l dl i f e C ounc i l s t o di s t r i but e t he be ne f i t s of w i l dl i f e f ound out s i de of c ons e r va nc y pur vi e w T he s ys t e m of c ounc i l s i s a gove r nm e nt i ns t i t ut i on t ha t c ol l e c t s r e ve nue f r om w i l dl i f e a nd us e s i t f or r e gi ona l de ve l opm e nt T he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt a l s o e s t a bl i s he d t he N a m i bi a n A s s oc i a t i on of C B N R M S uppor t O r ga ni z a t i ons ( N A S C O ) t ha t i nc or por a t e s t he M E T i n t he l e a di ng pos i t i on a nd a hos t o f N G O s dono r s c ons e r va t i on i s t s a nt hr opol ogi s t s s oc i ol ogi s t s a nd l oc a l a nd t r a di t i ona l a ut hor i t i e s N A S C O s uppl i e s t r a i ni ng, a dvi c e r e gi ona l c o or di na t i on, m oni t or i ng a nd e va l ua t i on, i ns t i t ut i on s t r e ngt he ni ng, a nd gr a nt m a na ge m e nt 1 1 7 P ar t i c i pat i on i n N am i bi a s P r ogr am N a m i bi a s pr ogr a m p r ovi de s m ul t i pl e out l e t s f or p a r t i c i pa t i on f o r m a ny s oc i a l c i r c l e s e ve n nom a di c gr oups l i ke t he S a n a nd w o m e n, out l e t s t ha t w e r e not a va i l a bl e unde r t he or i gi na l s ys t e m of c ons e r va t i on a nd l a nd m a na ge m e nt C ons e r va nc i e s a r e r un by de m oc r a t i c a l l y e l e c t e d c ons e r va nc y c om m i t t e e s T he s e c om m i t t e e s a r e i n c ha r ge of t he i ns t i t ut i ona l m a na ge m e nt o f t he c ons e r va nc y f r om ove r s e e i ng i m pl e m e nt a t i on o f pl a ns t o f i na nc i a l m a na ge m e nt r e por t i ng, a nd gov e r nm e nt ne t w or ki ng T he C om m un i t y G a m e G ua r ds ha ve be e n c onve r t e d t o C ons e r va nc y G a m e G ua r ds ( s t i l l C G G s ) a nd a r e 1 1 6 N a m i b i a C B N R M w e b s i t e 1 1 7 N a m i b i a C B N R M w e b s i t e

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68 m os t l y m a de up of young S a n m e n. T he C G G s a r e i n c ha r ge of da y t o da y m oni t or i ng of w i l dl i f e bo t h di s s ua di ng i l l e ga l hunt i ng a nd p r ovi di ng va l ua bl e s c i e nt i f i c i nf o r m a t i on 1 1 8 M oni t or i ng ha s be e n c om pi l e d i nt o a va r i e t y of f or m a t s t ha t a r e e a s i l y a c c e s s i bl e by c ons e r va nc y m e m be r s I n C a pr i vi E a s t a nd W e s t c ons e r va nc i e s ha ve be e n c ol l e c t i ng ve hi c l e c ount s a nd f oot t r a ns e c t c ount s a nd c ondu c t i ng f i xe d r out e f oo t pa t r ol s S o m e c ons e r va nc i e s ha ve a l s o e s t a bl i s he d t he E ve nt B oo k s ys t e m t ha t a l l ow s c om m uni t y m e m be r s t o ge t i n f or m a t i on e a s i l y. T he na t i ona l g ove r nm e nt ha s c r e a t e d a w i l dl i f e da t a ba s e t ha t c om bi ne s a l l t he i nf o r m a t i on f r om va r i ous c ons e r va nc i e s M a ppi ng i s a l s o pa r t i c i pa t or y i n N a m i bi a A l l c ons e r va nc i e s m us t m a p t he a r e a a nd a g r e e on bounda r i e s ( w hi c h c a n t a ke ye a r s ) be f or e ga i ni ng l e ga l s t a t us P a r t i c i pa t or y m a ppi ng i s of t e n c ons i de r e d a s our c e of e m pow e r m e nt 1 1 9 S i nc e t he c o ns e r va nc i e s a r e m oni t or i ng t he a r e a s t he y c ont r ol t he y a r e t he i ns t i t ut i ons t ha t e s t a bl i s h t he w i l dl i f e quo t a s a nd de t e r m i ne t he a m ount of r e s our c e s t ha t c a n be us e d s us t a i na bl y. O f c our s e t he M E T ha s t he ul t i m a t e a ut hor i t y ove r t he us e of r e s our c e s but t he c ons e r v a nc y of f e r s t he o r i gi na l p r opo s a l W i t h a c om bi na t i on of t he C G G s m a ppi ng a nd t he a bi l i t y t o s e t quot a s c ons e r va nc y m e m be r s a r e he a vi l y i nvol ve d w i t h t he c ons e r va t i on s i de of C B N R M A l s o, m e m be r s m us t a ppl y f or c ons e r va nc y m e m be r s hi p, r a t he r t ha n be i ng a ut om a t i c a l l y i ni t i a t e d. I n B o t s w a na w he r e e s s e nt i a l l y e ve r y a dul t ove r e i ght e e n a nd i n r e s i de nc y i s a m e m be r of t he C B O t he r e s e e m s t o be l e s s i nve s t m e nt a nd i nt e r e s t i n t h e a c t i vi t i e s of t he pr ogr a m W om e n ha ve be e n s i ngl e d out f or a pr om i ne nt r ol e i n c ons e r va t i on m oni t or i ng I n t he or i gi na l s pur t of c om m uni t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i o n e f f or t s m e n w e r e pl a c e d f i r m l y i n 1 1 8 B r i a n T B J o n e s N a m i b i a s A p p r o a c h t o C B N R M 1 9 9 8 S c a n d i n a v i a n S e m i n a r C o l l e g e : A f r i c a n P e r s p e c t i v e s o f P o l i c i e s a n d P r a c t i c e s 7 1 1 9 S t e f a n o D i G e s s a P a r t i c i p a t o r y M a p p i n g a s a t o o l f o r e m p o w e r m e n t 2 0 0 8 I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a n d C o a l i t i o n 4

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69 c ha r ge of na t ur a l r e s our c e s t hr ough t he C G G ne t w or k. H ow e ve r w om e n w e r e a c t ua l l y t he one s us i ng a nd di s t r i but i ng m a ny o f t he r e s our c e s r a t he r t ha n m e n. I n m a ny c a s e s s uc h a s t he c ul t i va t i on of pa l m s i n c e r t a i n a r e a s of t he c ount r y, t he r e s our c e s be ga n t o f a l l unde r t he m e n s c a r e W he n r e s our c e s w e r e pl a c e d unde r t he c a r e of m e n, i t di s r up t e d ge nde r r e l a t i ons hi ps a nd t he r e l a t i ons hi p w i t h t he r e s our c e N G O s i nvol ve d i n c o ns e r va t i on i n N a m i bi a r e a l i z e d t ha t w om e n a r e t he pr i m a r y c r op p r oduc e r s ( t he r e f o r e m os t a f f e c t e d by c r op da m a ge f r om w i l d l i f e ) t he p r ovi de r s of f ood, a nd t he pr i m a r y di r e c t or s of na t u r a l r e s our c e us e T he i de a of a w o m e n s r e s our c e m oni t or i ng gr oup s pr e a d t hr ough t he v i l l a ge s t he t r a di t i ona l l e a de r s l e nt t he i r s uppor t a nd t he C om m uni t y R e s our c e M oni t or ( C R M ) pos i t i on e vol ve d. O r i gi na l l y, t he C R M s w or ke d w i t h t he C G G s t o de a l w i t h pr ob l e m a ni m a l s H ow e ve r t he i r m a i n t a l e nt s l a y w i t h m ob i l i z i ng c o m m uni t i e s t o t a ke a dva nt a ge of va r i ous na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt opt i ons a nd s e r vi ng a s i nf or m a t i on di s pe ns e r s a nd ne t w or ke r s be t w e e n l oc a l c om m uni t i e s a nd t ou r i s m ope r a t or s a nd o t he r s t a ke hol de r s C R M s f oc us e d on obt a i ni ng l oc a l know l e dge ( m a i nl y f r om ot he r w om e n) on t he va r i ous us e s f or na t ur a l r e s our c e s s uc h a s pa l m s gr a s s e s a nd ot he r ve l d pr oduc t s t ha t c oul d i nf or m C B N R M pr oj e c t s A l t hough t he C R M s i n s om e a r e a s s uf f e r f r om l a c k of c a pa c i t y a nd s om e t i m e s a di s c onne c t be t w e e n t he e xpe c t a t i ons of t he w om e n a nd t he e xpe c t a t i ons of t he c ons e r va nc i e s t he C R M r ol e ha s gi ve n w om e n a n out l e t a nd oppor t uni t y t o pa r t i c i pa t e i n C B N R M i n a m e a ni ngf ul w a y. 1 2 0 N a m i bi a s gove r nm e nt a t a l l l e ve l s ha s be e n r e m a r ka bl y e f f e c t i ve a t t a ki ng a l l f i ve of O s t r om a nd B l om qui s t s d i m e ns i ons i nt o a c c ount t hr oughout i m pl e m e nt a t i on. T he 1 2 0 F i o n a F l i n t a n W o m e n a n d C B N R M i n N a m i b i a 2 0 0 1 W o r k i n g P a p e r N o 2 f o r t h e E n g e n d e r i n g E d e n P r o j e c t I n t e r n a t i o n a l F a m i n e C e n t r e 3

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70 s ym m e t r y i n pa r t i c ul a r ha s be e n w e l l m a na ge d. T he pr ogr a m ha s ba l a nc e d ge nde r r ol e s t o gi ve bot h w om e n a nd m e n pos i t i ons of pow e r a nd a c c e s s t o i nf or m a t i on. R e s pons i bi l i t y a nd be ne f i t s a r e bot h e qu a l l y va l ue d a s c r i t i c a l t o t he c ons e r va nc y s ys t e m ; c ons e r va nc y m e m be r s a r e not pa s s i ve a nd a c t i ve l y e nga ge i n a l l pr oc e s s e s of t he p r ogr a m f r om m on i t or i ng t o p r of i t di s t r i but i on T he gove r n m e nt s e e ks out i nf or m a t i on f r om t he l oc a l c om m uni t i e s i nvol vi ng pe opl e i n t he p r ogr a m t hr ough a va r i e t y of m e t hods l i ke a nnua l ga m e c ount s N a m i bi a i s no t s uf f e r i ng f r om t he s a m e di s c onne c t be t w e e n vi l l a ge s a nd t he na t i ona l gove r n m e nt t ha t ha m pe r s B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m a nd c ons e que nt l y, c om m uni c a t i on a nd i nf o r m a t i on a r e l e s s c onvol ut e d. A ddi t i ona l l y m on i t or i ng a nd e nf or c e m e nt a r e m uc h be t t e r m a na ge d, s i nc e t he c om m uni t i e s do i t t he m s e l ve s C on c l u s i o n N a m i bi a ha s be ne f i t e d f r o m be i ng a l a t e c om e r t o t he C B N R M s c e ne I t s pr ogr a m ha s a voi de d t he de vol ut i on p r obl e m s of C A M P F I R E a nd p r ovi de d s t r a t e gi e s t o ke e p pe opl e i nvol ve d. E ve n s om e t hi ng a s s i m pl e a s pa i r i ng a n e l de r w i t h a n e duc a t e d yout h t o a c c om pl i s h t a s ks i n t he c ons e r va nc y c a n ha ve a l a r ge e f f e c t on t he num be r of pe opl e i nvol ve d i n t he pr ogr a m a nd t he pow e r s ha r i ng a s p e c t s of C B N R M Z i m ba bw e s pr ogr a m s t r e s s e d t he e c onom i c a s pe c t s of t he p r og r a m w hi c h w a s s uc c e s s f ul f or ga r ne r i ng s uppor t a c r os s t he boa r d, but i t di d not p r ovi de e m pow e r m e nt i n m os t c a s e s e s pe c i a l l y onc e t he e c onom i c i nc e nt i ve s be ga n f a i l i ng. N a m i bi a s a pp r oa c h of s t r e s s i ng bot h r e s pons i bi l i t y t ow a r d w i l dl i f e a nd e c onom i c b e ne f i t s on t he l oc a l l e ve l s e e m s t o be m os t e f f e c t i ve B ot s w a na a ppe a r s t o be t r a ppe d i n t he s a m e pos i t i on i n w hi c h Z i m ba bw e

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71 f ound i t s e l f i t : not t r us t i ng l oc a l c om m uni t i e s w i t h be ne f i t a l l oc a t i on or m e a ni ngf ul pr ogr a m i m pl e m e nt a t i on I nc r e a s i ng t he f oc us on p a r t i c i pa t or y m oni t o r i ng s ys t e m s ( a s N a m i bi a a nd Z i m ba bw e bo t h di d) a nd m a ki ng C B N R M m or e s e ns i t i ve t o i nvol vi ng di s a dva nt a ge d gr oups ( l i ke N a m i bi a s C R M pr ogr a m ) c oul d g r e a t l y e n ha nc e i t s e f f e c t i ve ne s s a nd pol i t i c a l s us t a i na bi l i t y.

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72 C h ap te r 5 C on c l u d i n g I n s i gh ts C om m uni t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m s ha ve ov e r t w o de c a de s of c he c ke r e d hi s t or y t o da t e T he i de ol ogy o f c om bi ni ng e c onom i c i nc e nt i ve s w i l dl i f e c ons e r va t i on, a nd r ur a l de ve l opm e nt r e m a i ns s t r ong i n a c a de m i c a nd pr a c t i c i ng c i r c l e s P l a c i ng de ve l opm e nt w i t hi n t he c ont e xt of r e s pons i bl e c ons e r va t i on i s a hi ghl y a t t r a c t i ve s ol ut i on t o c ur r e nt e nvi r onm e nt a l a nd s oc i oe c onom i c i s s ue s U nf o r t una t e l y, t he i m pl e m e nt a t i on of s uc h pr ogr a m s ha s not gone s m oot hl y a nd t he s e a r c h f or e f f e c t i ve s ol ut i ons c ont i nue s T he f i r s t s t e p of s ol vi ng t he p r obl e m s e xpe r i e nc e d by C B N R M pr ogr a m i m pl e m e nt e r s i s t o e s t a bl i s h a m e t hod of a na l ys i s t ha t de t e r m i ne s t h e m os t s a l i e nt i s s ue s P ol yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m w i t h i t s s uppor t of f l e xi bl e gove r na nc e s ys t e m s a nd a l l ow a nc e f or c om pl i c a t e d s oc i a l i nt e r a c t i ons f i t s t he na t ur e of c om m uni t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m s T he c ons t r uc t i on o f a ut ono m ous but s t r ongl y c onne c t e d, s phe r e s of i nf l ue nc e w oul d pr ovi de bot h t he hi gh de gr e e of c hoi c e f or l oc a l c i t i z e ns a nd t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt ove r s i ght ne e de d f or a f unc t i ona l c om m uni t y ba s e d c ons e r va t i on pr ogr a m S i nc e t he pr opos e d or ga ni z a t i ona l s ys t e m of po l yc e nt r i c i ns t i t ut i ona l i s m i s a ppr opr i a t e f o r C B N R M t he m e t hods of a na l ys i s us e d by pol yc e nt r i c t he or i s t s a r e e f f e c t i ve a t di s t i l l i ng t he p r ogr a m s i nt o c l e a r l y i de nt i f i a bl e c om pone nt s I n C B N R M

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73 pr ogr a m s t he pr obl e m s a r e of t e n c om pl e x a nd i t i s us e f ul t o s e pa r a t e a nd de f i ne w ha t t he a c t ua l pr obl e m s a r e B ot s w a na s C B N R M pr ogr a m i s e vol vi ng i n a n un us ua l c l i m a t e B ot s w a na s na t i ona l gove r nm e nt ha s ha d t i ght c ont r o l ove r r e s our c e s s i nc e i nde pe nde nc e a nd t ha t s ys t e m ha s ga i ne d s om e l e gi t i m a c y, l e a vi ng a de c e nt r a l i z e d r e s our c e pr og r a m di f f i c ul t f or t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt t o a c c e pt c om pl e t e l y a nd t r yi ng f o r l oc a l c om m uni t i e s t o m a na ge T he l a c k of f ul l gove r nm e nt s uppor t ha s l e f t C B N R M f l ounde r i ng s i nc e t he w i t hdr a w a l of m os t f or e i gn or ga ni z a t i ons B ot h t e c hni c a l c a pa c i t y a nd i de ol ogi c a l he s i t a nc e c r e a t e d obs t a c l e s t ha t ha ve not be e n r e s ol ve d i n B ot s w a na a s of ye t A l a c k of c om m uni t y e nga ge m e nt pe r va de s m os t of t he C B N R M pr oj e c t s c a us i ng t he pr oj e c t s t o be c ons i de r e d hi ndr a nc e s t o l i ve l i hoods ( t he N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y) or s i m pl y out o f t h e pur vi e w of nor m a l l i f e ( t he K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y) W he n br oke n dow n by t he pol yc e nt r i c de s i gn pr i n c i pl e s t he m os t c onc e r ni ng s oc i ol ogi c a l t r e nds i n B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m a r e t he na t i ona l gove r nm e nt s unw i l l i ngne s s t o de vol ve m e a ni ngf ul c ont r ol t he c om p r om i s e d p ol i t i c a l s pa c e i n t he f or m of t he k got l a a nd t he l i m i t e d oppor t uni t i e s ( a nd s e e m i ng i nt e r e s t ) t ha t c om m un i t i e s m e m be r s ha ve i n pa r t i c i pa t i ng i n t he pr oj e c t s I n a ddi t i on t o t he s e i s s ue s t he r e a r e a l s o e c onom i c c onc e r ns s uc h a s e m be z z l e m e nt uns u s t a i na bl e c os t s a nd t e c hni c a l i nc a pa c i t y. Z i m ba bw e s pr ogr a m be ga n r unni ng i nt o s i m i l a r di f f i c ul t i e s a nd opt e d f o r gr e a t e r c e nt r a l i z a t i on, a s B ot s w a na s gove r nm e nt i s c ur r e nt l y doi ng A s i n Z i m ba bw e t he c ons e que nc e s of f ur t he r c e nt r a l i z a t i on c oul d di s m a n t l e B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m or p r e ve nt i t f r o m e ve r be c om i ng a n a c t ua l c om m uni t y r un i ns t i t ut i on.

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74 N a m i bi a s gove r nm e nt i m pl e m e nt a t i on s t r a t e gi e s c ont a i n s e ve r a l pot e nt i a l opt i ons f or B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m t o i nc r e a s e pa r t i c i pa t i on H ow e ve r t he f i r s t ne c e s s a r y s t e p t ow a r d a m or e e f f e c t i ve p r ogr a m i n B ot s w a na i s a n i nc r e a s e d a m ount of gove r nm e nt i nve s t m e nt a nd s uppor t of t he c om m uni t y ba s e d a s pe c t of t he pr ogr a m r a t he r t ha n s i m pl e i nc r e a s e of gove r nm e nt c ont r ol I f t he gove r nm e nt be c om e s m or e i nvol ve d i n a pos i t i ve m a nne r pr og r a m s l i ke t he c om m uni t y r e s our c e m o ni t or s i n N a m i bi a s c ons e r va nc i e s c oul d be t r i e d out f or m a r gi na l i z e d gr oups I nc r e a s e d t e c hni c a l a s s i s t a nc e c oul d i m pr ove t he pr of i t m a r gi n of pr oj e c t s a l l ow i ng t he m t o be n e f i t t he c om m uni t i e s m or e e xt e ns i ve l y. I f t he gove r nm e nt w e r e t o put m or e r e s our c e s i nt o t he pr ogr a m a nd c r e a t e a m or e s ubs t a nt i a l s uppor t s ys t e m t ha t ne t w or ks va r i ous g ove r nm e nt m i ni s t r i e s t he D N W P m i ght ha ve t i m e t o e nc our a ge t he s t r ong c om m uni t y m oni t or i ng a nd e nf o r c e m e nt pr ogr a m s t h a t ha ve w o r ke d s o w e l l i n N a m i bi a P r ogr a m i m pl e m e nt e r s s houl d a l s o e xa m i ne t he e f f e c t s of us i ng t he k got l a a s t he pr i m a r y pol i t i c a l s pa c e a nd pe r ha ps c r e a t e ot he r a ve nue s f or pa r t i c i pa t i on t ha t a r e not c onne c t e d t o t r a di t i ona l T s w a na m a l e a r e na s ( s uc h a s c om m uni t y r e s our c e m oni t o r s a nd pa r t i c i pa t or y m a ppi ng) B ot s w a na pos s e s s e s a r e m a r ka bl y pr i s t i ne na t ur a l e nvi r onm e nt a nd i t c oul d be hi ghl y l uc r a t i ve t o t a ke a dva nt a ge of a nd p r ot e c t t h i s unus ua l r e s our c e B ot s w a na i s a m i ddl e i nc om e m ode r a t e l y s t a bl e d e m oc r a c y, but i t i s f a c i ng a s e r i ous c r i s i s i n t he f or m of t he H I V / A I D S e pi de m i c a nd a pot e nt i a l c r i s i s i n t he l a c k of di ve r s i t y i n t he e c onom y. T he c ount r y de s pe r a t e l y ne e ds t o br a nc h out f r om di a m ond m i ni ng p r of i t s a nd c l os e t he ga p be t w e e n t he r i c h u r ba ni t e s a nd r u r a l poo r C ur r e nt l y, t he un i t y a m ong e t hni c gr oups t ha t ha s be e n s t r i c t l y m a i nt a i ne d by t he gove r nm e n t t hr ough l e gi s l a t i on a nd a t t i t ude i s be gi nni ng t o c r um b l e a r ound t he e dge s w i t h i nc r e a s e d pr ot e s t s f r om t he S a n. C B N R M

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75 w hi l e c e r t a i nl y not a c ur e a l l doe s ha ve t he goa l o f c r e a t i ng c ohe s i ve f unc t i ona l c om m uni t i e s t ha t e m pow e r t he pe opl e w i t hi n t he m a nd t h i s dyna m i c c oul d po t e nt i a l l y c om ba t s om e of t he i s s ue s f a c i ng B ot s w a na t oda y. T he s us t a i na bl e us e a nd m a na ge m e nt of na t ur a l r e s our c e s pr e s e nt s oppor t uni t i e s f or e c onom i c di ve r s i f i c a t i on, ne t w or ki ng a nd c om m uni c a t i on a m ong gove r nm e nt i ns t i t ut i ons of a l l l e ve l s a nd ne w r ol e s a nd opt i ons f or r ur a l i nd i vi dua l s C B N R M pr ogr a m s a r e e xt r e m e l y di f f i c ul t t o i m pl e m e nt be c a us e t he i r e f f e c t s r i ppl e t hr ough s o m a ny di f f e r e nt i ns t i t ut i ons a nd c a n ha ve s uc h a va r i e t y of out c om e s H e nc e t he y t ouc h on t he i nt e r e s t s of m a ny i ndi vi dua l s g r oups a nd m i ni s t r i e s t ha t s e e k t o s ha pe t he pr og r a m H ow e ve r C B N R M pr ogr a m s be c a us e of t he i r w i de s c ope a nd l of t y goa l s ha ve gr e a t pot e nt i a l t o i m pr ove l i ve l i hoods a nd e nvi r onm e nt s a s w e l l a s a l l ow pe opl e t o be c om e m or e a c t i ve a nd e d uc a t e d c i t i z e ns I f B ot s w a na s pr ogr a m c a n ove r c om e t he obs t a c l e s of non e nga ge m e nt on t he na t i ona l a nd i ndi vi dua l l e ve l C B N R M c oul d ha ve a pr om i s i ng f ut ur e a nd a pr om i ne nt r ol e i n s oc i oe c onm i c de ve l opm e nt of t he c ount r y.

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76 Bi b l og r ap h y A dhi ka r i B hi m J on C L ove t t 2006 I ns t i t ut i ons a nd C ol l e c t i ve A c t i on: D oe s H e t e r oge ne i t y M a t t e r i n C om m uni t y B a s e d R e s ou r c e M a na ge m e nt ? J our nal of D e v e l opm e nt St udi e s V ol 42 ( 3 ) 426 445. A l e xa nde r J oc e l yn a nd J oA nn M c G r e gor W i l dl i f e a nd P ol i t i c s : C A M P F I R E i n Z i m ba bw e D e v e l opm e nt and C hange 31. 2000. 605 627. A nde r s s on, K r i s t e r P E l i nor O s t r om 2008. A na l yz i ng D e c e nt r a l i z e d r e s our c e r e gi m e s f r om a pol yc e nt r i c pe r s pe c t i ve P o l i c y Sc i e nc e V o l 41. 71 93. B a r t l e y, T i m K r i s t e r A nde r s s on, P a m e l a J a gge r F r a nk V a n L a e r hove n 2008 T he C ont r i but i on of I ns t i t ut i ona l T he or i e s t o E xpl a i n i n g D e c e nt r a l i z a t i on of N a t ur a l R e s our c e G ove r na nc e S oc i e t y and N at ur al R e s our c e s V ol 21. 160 174 B l a i ki e P i e r s I s S m a l l R e a l l y B e a ut i f ul ? C om m u ni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l r e s our c e M a na ge m e nt i n M a l a w i a nd B ot s w a na W or l d D e v e l opm e nt 34 ( 11 ) 1942 1956. 2006. B ond, I va n a nd P e t e r F r os t T he C A M P F I R E pr o g r a m i n Z i m ba bw e : P a ym e nt s f or W i l dl i f e S e r vi c e s E c ol ogi c al E c onom i c s 65. 200 8. 776 787 B ond, I va n a nd E ve r i s t o M a pde z a P ol i t i c a l D e a d l oc k a nd D e vol ve d W i l dl i f e M a na ge m e nt i n Z i m ba bw e : T he C a s e of N e nyung a W a r d. J our nal of E nv i r onm e nt and D e v e l op m e nt 15 ( 4) 2006 407 427. B ot s w a na T our i s m B oa r d O f f i c i a l i nt e r vi e w by a u t hor G a bo r one B ot s w a na N ove m be r 16, 2007 B ot s w a na T our i s m B oa r d, T s odi l o H i l l s V i e w e d A pr i l 20 20 09. < ht t p: / / w w w bot s w a na t our i s m c o. bw / a t t r a c t i ons / t s odi l o_hi l l s ht m l > B uz w a ni B T S e t l hogi l e J A r nt z e n, a nd F P o t t s B e s t P r ac t i c e s i n B ot s w ana f or t he M anage m e nt of N at ur al R e s our c e s by C om m uni t i e s 2007. C B N R M S uppor t P r ogr a m m e O c c a s i ona l P a pe r N o 17 I U C N C B N R M S uppor t P r og r a m m e C e nt r e f or A ppl i e d R e s e a r c h O f f i c i a l i nt e r vi e w by a ut hor G a bor one B ot s w a na N ove m be r 28, 2007. C ha m be r s R obe r t 1998 B e yond W hos e R e a l i t y C ount s ? N e w M e t hods w e now ne e d? St udi e s i n C ul t ur e s O r gani z at i ons and So c i e t i e s V ol 4 279 301. C ha m be r s R obe r t 1994 P a r t i c i pa t o r y R ur a l A pp r a i s a l ( P R A ) : C ha l l e nge s P ot e nt i a l s a nd P a r a di gm W or l d D e v e l opm e nt V ol 22 ( 10 ) 1437 1454.

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77 C hi l d, G r a ha m W i l d l i f e and P e opl e : T he Z i m babw e an Suc c e s s N e w Y or k: W i s dom F ounda t i on. 1995 C hi t s i ke L T D e c e nt r al i z at i on and D e v ol ut i on of C A M P F I R E i n Z i m babw e C e nt r e f or A ppl i e d S oc i a l S c i e nc e s U ni ve r s i t y of Z i m ba bw e 2000. C hr i s t o, F a br i c i us e d. R i ght s r e s our c e s and r ur al de v e l opm e nt : c om m uni t y bas e d nat ur al r e s our c e m anage m e nt i n Sout he r n A f r c a. 2 004. L ondon : E a r t hs c a n. C ooke B i l l a nd U m a K ot ha r i e d. P ar t i c i pat i on t h e N e w T y r anny ? 2001. L ondon: Z e d B ooks D e pa r t m e nt of E nvi r onm e nt a l A f f a i r s O f f i c i a l i nt e r vi e w by a ut hor G a bo r one B ot s w a na N ove m be r 22, 2007. D e pa r t m e nt f or E nvi r onm e nt a l A f f a i r s M oni t or i ng O f f i c e O f f i c i a l i n t e r vi e w by a ut hor G a bor one B ot s w a na N ove m be r 22 2007 D i t s hw a ne l o. S ha dow R e por t t o t he U ni t e d N a t i on s C om m i t t e e on t he E l i m i na t i on of R a c i a l D i s c r i m i na t i on 68 t h S e s s i on G e ne va M a r c h 3 6. 2006 D uf f y, R os a l e e n. K i l l i ng f or C ons e r v at i on: W i l dl i f e P ol i c y i n Z i m babw e O x f or d: J a m e s C ur r y. 2000 D z i ngi r a i V upe nyu. C A M P F I R E i s not f o r N de b e l e M i gr a nt s : t he I m pa c t o f E xc l udi ng O ut s i de r s f r om C A M P F I R E i n t he Z a m be z i V a l l e y Z i m ba bw e J our nal of Sout h A f r i c an St udi e s 29 ( 2) 2003 445 459. F l i nt a n, F i ona W om e n a nd C B N R M i n N a m i bi a 2001. W or ki ng P a pe r N o 2 f o r t he E nge nde r i ng E de n P r oj e c t I nt e r na t i ona l F a m i ne C e nt r e 3 G e s s a S t e f a no D i P a r t i c i pa t or y M a ppi ng a s a t oo l f or e m pow e r m e nt 2008 I nt e r na t i ona l L a nd C oa l i t i on, 4 G uj a dhur T a r a J oi nt V e nt ur e O pt i ons f or C om m uni t i e s and Saf ar i O pe r at or s i n B ot s w ana. 2001. C B N R M S uppor t P r og r a m m e O c c a s i ona l P a pe r N o. 6 I U C N S uppor t P r ogr a m m e H a l l P e t e r A R os e m a r y C R T a yl or 1996 P ol i t i c a l S c i e nc e a nd t he T hr e e N e w I ns t i t ut i ona l i s m s P ol i t i c al St ud i e s V ol X L I V 93 6 957. H a r di n, G a r r e t t T he T r a ge dy of t he C om m ons 1 968. Sc i e nc e V ol 162, 1243 1248 H a s l e r R i c ha r d. A n O ve r vi e w of t he S oc i a l E c ol ogi c a l a nd E c onom i c A c hi e ve m e nt s a nd C ha l l e nge s of Z i m ba bw e s C A M P F I R E P r og r a m m e E v a l uat i ng E de n Se r i e s D i s c us s i on P ape r 3. 1999

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78 H i c ke y, S a m ue l a nd G i l e M oha n, e d P ar t i c i pat i on : F r om T y r anny t o T r ans f or m at i on? 2004. L ondo n: Z e d B ooks H ul m e D a vi d a nd M a r s ha l l W M ur phr e e e d. A f r i c an W i l dl i f e and L i v e l i hoods : T he P r om i s e and P e r f or m anc e of C om m uni t y C ons e r v at i on 2001 J a m e s C ur r e y J a c obs ohn, M a r ga r e t a nd G a r t h O w e n S m i t h, I nt e gr a t i ng C ons e r va t i on a nd D e ve l opm e nt : A N a m i bi a n C a s e S t udy, 2003. N om adi c P e opl e s V ol 7. J ohns on, S t e ve I nc r e m e nt a l D e vol ut i on a s a S t r a t e gy f or C om m uni t y M a na ge m e nt of N R M B e ne f i t s W i l dl i f e C ons e r va t i on a nd M a na ge m e nt P r ogr a m D e pa r t m e nt of W i l dl i f e a nd N a t i ona l P a r ks G a bo r one B ot s w a na M a r c h, 2006 J one s B r i a n T B C hobe E nc l av e B o t s w ana: l e s s ons l e ar nt f r om a C B N R M P r oj e c t C B N R M S uppor t P r ogr a m m e O c c a s s i ona l P a pe r N o. 7. I U C N S uppo r t P r ogr a m m e J one s B r i a n T B N a m i bi a s A ppr oa c h t o C B N R M 1998. S c a ndi na vi a n S e m i na r C ol l e ge : A f r i c a n P e r s pe c t i ve s of P ol i c i e s a nd P r a c t i c e s K a l a ha r i C ons e r va t i on S oc i e t y P r o j e c t M a na ge r i n t e r vi e w by a ut h or G a bor one B ot s w a na N ove m be r 11, 2007 K a l a ha r i C ons e r va t i on S oc i e t y. K a l a ha r i C ons e r va t i on S oc i e t y V i e w e d A pr i l 20, 2009. < ht t p: / / w w w kc s or g. bw / > K a poor I l a n. 2002 T he D e vi l s i n t he T he or y: a C r i t i c a l A s s e s s m e nt of R obe r t C ha m be r s w or k on pa r t i c i pa t or y de ve l opm e nt T hi r d W or l d Q uar t e r l y V ol 23 ( 1) 101 117 K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y M a na ge r i n t e r vi e w by a ut hor S e r ow e B ot s w a na S e pt e m be r 15, 2007 L a c ha pe l l e P a ul R S t e phe n F M c C ool 2005. E x pl or i ng t he C onc e pt of O w ne r s hi p i n N a t ur a l R e s our c e P l a nni ng Soc i e t y and N at ur al R e s our c e s V ol 18. 279 285 M a nni ng, R obe r t C l a r e G i nge r 2007. A n O w ne r s M a nua l t o O w ne r s hi p : A P l y t o L a c ha pe l l e a nd M c C ool Soc i e t y and N at ur al R e s our c e s V ol 20. 187 192. M ba i w a J E T our i s m and t he E nv i r onm e nt i n t he O k av ango D e l t a, B o t s w ana. 2006. G a bor one : P ul a P r e s s M c G i nni s M i c ha e l D 1999. P ol yc e nt r i c g ove r na nc e a nd de ve l opm e nt : r e a di ngs f r om t he W or ks hop i n P ol i t i c a l T he or y a nd P ol i c y A na l ys i s I ns t i t ut i ona l a na l ys i s A nn A r bor M I : U ni ve r s i t y of M i c hi ga n P r e s s

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79 M e t c a l f e S i m on. C A M P F I R E : Z i m babw e s C om m unal A r e as M anage m e nt P r ogr am m e f or I ndi ge nous R e s our c e s C e nt r e f or A ppl i e d S c i e nc e s U ni ve r s i t y of Z i m ba bw e 1993. M i ni s t r y of E nvi r onm e nt W i l dl i f e a nd T ou r i s m C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt P ol i c y. B ot s w a na G ove r nm e nt P r i n t e r G a bor one 2006 M i ni s t r y of E nvi r onm e nt W i l dl i f e a nd T ou r i s m R e publ i c of B ot s w a na C om m uni t y B as e d N at ur al R e s our c e s M anage m e nt P ol i c y 200 4. M i ni s t r y of E nvi r onm e nt a nd T ou r i s m N a m i bi a C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt P r ogr a m m e D e t a i l s V i e w e d A pr i l 2 0, 2009 < ht t p: / / w w w m e t gov na / pr ogr a m m e s / c bnr m / c bnr m H om e ht m > M ur obe dz i J C 2003. R e vi s i t i ng t he P r i nc i pl e s o f C B N R M i n S out he r n A f r i c a I n: P r oc e e di ngs of t he R e gi ona l C onf e r e nc e on C B N R M i n S out he r n A f r i c a : S ha r i ng B e s t P r a c t i c e s f or t he F u t ur e W i ndhoe k, M a r c h 3 7. N a m i bi a A s s oc i a t i on of C B N R M S uppor t O r ga ni z a t i ons ( N A C S O ) W i ndh oe k, N a m i bi a : 11 30. M us um a l i M us ol e M 2007. A n I m pa s s e i n C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt I m pl e m e nt a t i on: t he c a s e of Z a m bi a a nd B ot s w a na O r y x 41 ( 3) 306 312. N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y B oa r d M e m be r i n t e r vi e w by a ut hor N a t a B ot s w a na O c t obe r 26 2007. N a t a B i r d S a nc t ua r y M a na ge r i nt e r vi e w by a ut hor N a t a B ot s w a na O c t obe r 26 2007 O s t r om E l i nor L a r r y D S c hr oe de r a nd S us a n G W ynne 1993. I ns t i t ut i onal i nc e nt i v e s and s us t ai nabl e de v e l opm e nt : i nf r as t r uc t ur e pol i c i e s i n pe r s pe c t i v e T he or e t i c a l l e ns e s on publ i c pol i c y. B oul de r : W e s t vi e w P r e s s O t e nyo, E r i c E dw i n, a nd N a n c y S L i nd. 2006. C om pa r a t i ve publ i c a dm i ni s t r a t i on: t he e s s e nt i a l r e a di ngs R e s e a r c h i n publ i c pol i c y a na l y s i s a nd m a na ge m e nt v. 15. A m s t e r da m : E l s e vi e r J A I P a r ki ns J ohn R R os s E M i t c he l l 2005 P ubl i c p a r t i c i pa t i on a s publ i c de ba t e : A de l i be r a t i ve t ur n i n na t ur a l r e s our c e m a na ge m e nt Soc i e t y and N at ur al R e s our c e s V ol 18. 529 540. P e t e r s P a ul i ne E D i v i di ng t he C om m ons : P ol i t i c s P o l i c y and C ul t ur e i n B ot s w ana 1994. U ni ve r s i t y o f V i gi n i a P r e s s P ot e e t e A m y R H ow N a t i ona l P ol i t i c s A f f e c t s N a t ur a l R e s our c e P ol i c y: T he C a s e of C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt i n B ot s w a na 2007. P a pe r P r e s e nt e d a t t he 48 t h I nt e r na t i ona l S t udi e s A s s oc i a t i on A nnua l C onve nt i on

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80 P ot e e t e A m y R R e s our c e s f or t he N a t i on or f or C om m uni t i e s ? I nt e r a c t i ons be t w e e n M i ne r a l R i ght s W i l dl i f e P ol i c i e s a nd P ol i t i c a l C o a l i t i ons i n B ot s w a na 2007. A nnua l M e e t i ng of t he A m e r i c a n P ol i t i c a l S c i e nc e A s s oc i a t i on. S A D C N a t ur a l R e s our c e s M a na ge m e nt P r oj e c t O f f i c i a l i nt e r vi e w by a ut hor G a bo r one B ot s w a na N ove m be r 26, 2007 S c hus t e r B e d T ow a r ds V i s i on 2016: C B N R M s P ot e nt i a l t o C ont r i but e a nd C B N R M S t a t us R e por t 2006. I U C N C B N R M S uppor t P r o g r a m m e S c hus t e r B a nd O T T ha ka du, N at ur al R e s our c e M anage m e nt and P e opl e 2007 C B N R M S uppor t P r ogr a m m e O c c a s i ona l P a pe r N o. 15 I U C N C B N R M S uppor t P r ogr a m m e S w a t uk, L a r r y A 2005 F r om P r oj e c t t o C ont e xt : C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na g e m e nt i n B ot s w a na G l obal E nv i r onm e nt al P ol i t i c s V ol 5 ( 3) 95 124. T e m bo, E m m a nue l a nd J ul i a n V S i m e l a O pt i m i s i ng L a nd I nf or m a t i on M a na ge m e nt i n T r i ba l L a nds of B ot s w a na 2004. F I G W or k i ng W e e k T ha ka du, O T 2005 S uc c e s s F a c t or s i n C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e s M a na ge m e nt i n N or t he r n B ot s w a na : L e s s ons f r om P r a c t i c e N at ur al r e s our c e s F or um 29. 199 2 12 T i e bout C ha r l e s A P u r e T he or y of L oc a l E xpe nd i t ur e s 1956. T he J our nal of P ol i t i c al E c onom y V ol 64 ( 5 ) T w ym a n, C ha s c a P a r t i c i pa t o r y C ons e r va t i on? C om m uni t y B a s e d N a t ur a l R e s our c e M a na ge m e nt i n B ot s w a na 2000. G e ogr aphi c J our nal V ol 166 ( 4) 323 335

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81 A p p e n d i x L i s t of R e gi s t e r e d C B O s i n B ot s w an a i N am e of C B O B oka m os a W om e n s C o ope r a t i ve B os e l e F or e s t C ons e r va t i on T r us t B ot hl a l e J w a P ha l a K ha m a R hi no S a nc t ua r y T r us t G a i ng O C om m uni t y T r us t G w e z ot s ha N a t ur a l R e s our c e s T r us t K a w i i C ons e r va t i on T r us t K ge t s i ya T s i e K hum a ga C om m uni t y B a s e d T r us t M a pa nda C ons e r va t i on T r us t M m a di na r e D e ve l opm e nt T r us t M ol e m a T r us t M or e m i M a nonnye C ons e r va t i on T r us t M os u N a t ur a l R e s our c e s C on s e r va t i on T r us t M ot l ha l a nt s w e ng D e ve l opm e nt T r us t M ow a na T r us t 2 C e nt r a l N a t a S a nc t ua r y N ga nde C om m uni t y T r us t S e pa ko Q uot a M a na ge m e nt C om m i t t e e S e r ow e W oodc a r ve r s T um a s e r a N a t ur e R e s e r ve C hobe E nc l a ve C ons e r va t i on T r us t K a l e pa C ons e r va t i on T r us t K a t c he m pa t i B a s ke t W e a ve r s C o ope r a t i ve S e boba C om m i s s i one r s K op C ons e r va t i on T r us t C hobokw a ne C om m uni t y T r us t D K a r / K ur u C om m uni t y T r us t H ui ku C om m uni t y B a s e d C ons e r va t i on T r us t K goe s a ka ne M a n a ge m e nt T r us t X w i s kur us a C om m uni t y T r us t B or a va s t T r us t D i pa l w a na ge ng K ha w a K opa ne l o D e ve l opm e nt T r us t K oi na phu C om m uni t y T r us t L e hut ut u C om m uni t y C ons e r va t i on T r us t L uz w e D e ve l opm e nt T r us t M a hum o C om m uni t y T r us t M a i t e ko T s hw a r a ga no D e ve l opm e nt T r us t N qw a a K hobe e X he ya T r us t Q ha a Q hi ng T r us t K ga t l e ng N a t ur e C ons e r va t i on T r us t M a t a l e ng D e ve l opm e nt T r us t Y e ar 1993 1997 1996 199 9 2002 2001 1999 1992 2002 1994 1996 2000 1996 2001 1999 2002 1998 2001 D i s t r i c t C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C e nt r a l C hobe C hobe C hobe C hobe G ha nz i G ha nz i G ha nz i G ha nz i G ha nz i K ga l a ga di K ga l a ga di K ga l a ga di K ga l a ga di K ga l a ga di K ga l a ga di K ga l a ga di K ga l a ga di K ga l a ga di K ga l a ga di K ga t l e ng K ga t l e ng

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82 C B O B oi ka go T r us t D i phuduhudu H e r ba l P r oj e c t E m a ng T s hos a E nvi r onm e nt a l C ons e r va t i on T r us t G a ba ne C om m uni t y A s s oc i a t i on I ke m e l e ng P r oduc e r s C o ope r a t i ve I t a X ha a n T r us t I t e ke ng K he khe nye T r us t I t e ke ng M a ot ha t e I t hus e ng T r us t T s e t s e ng K a m e na kw e G r oup, M m a nkgodi K a udw a ne Q uot a M a na ge m e nt T r us t K goboka nyo T r us t K huduboj i D e ve l opm e nt T r us t K obokw e D i t s o C om m uni t y D e ve l opm e nt T r us t K ua ngoo M a na ge m e nt T r us t K w e ne ng D e ve l opm e nt T r us t L e t ha bi l e D e ve l opm e nt T r us t M a boa ne D e ve l opm e nt T r us t M a i t e ko D e ve l opm e nt T r us t M a t he a ba di m o N a t ur e C ons e r va t i on T r us t M m a t l a kgw a na D e ve l opm e nt T r us t M ot hw a r e D e ve l opm e nt T r us t N ona ye ni ya M ot s oga pe l e S e t l hopha s a D i not s hi T ha r i Y a B a na na T hokw a ne T r us t T hot a a ym a r ul a D e ve l opm e nt T r us t C ha noga D e ve l opm e nt T r us t B oka m os o W om e n s C o ope r a t i ve B uka khw e C ul t ur a l C ons e r va t i on T r us t C ga e C ga e T l ha bol ol o T r us t K hw a i C om m uni t y T r us t M a ba be Z ukut s ha m C om m uni t y T r us t N ga o B os w a W om e n s C o ope r a t i ve N xa m a s e r e D e ve l opm e nt T r us t O ka va ngo C om m uni t y T r us t O ka va ngo J a kot s ha C om m uni t y T r us t O ka va ngo K opa no M okor o C om m uni t y T r us t O ka va ngo P ol e r s T r us t P huduhudu D e ve l opm e nt T r us t Q a ngw a D e ve l opm e nt T r us t S a nkuyo T s hw a r a ga no M a na ge m e nt T r us t T c he ku D e ve l opm e nt T r us t Y e ar 2002 2002 1996 2000 1995 1999 1997 1998 1995 D i s t r i c t K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng K w e ne ng N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd

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83 C B O T e e m a c a ne C om m uni t y D e ve l opm e nt T r us t T e e m a s ha ne T r us t T s odi l o C om m uni t y D e ve l opm e nt T r us t X ha uxhw a t ubi C om m uni t y D e ve l opm e nt T r us t B ot hl a l e J w a P ha l a M ogoba ne W om e n s C o ope r a t i ve K e l e t s o C om m uni t y D e ve l opm e nt T r us t Y e ar 1999 2005 2002 D i s t r i c t N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd N ga m i l a nd S out he a s t S out he a s t S out he r n i R e g i s t r a t i o n y e a r s w e r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l o f t h e C B O s l i s t e d i n t h e 2 0 0 6 C B N R M S t a t u s R e p o r t I s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e C B O s w i t h o u t d a t e s a r e i n a c t i v e